In the mid-90s of the XX century, the electronic "Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius"was created. It was based on the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, which almost completely lacked articles on Buddhism (as well as on other religions) and its ancient monuments (texts, archaeological finds, architectural styles, etc.). The Editorial Committee convened a group of scientists to write new necessary articles and revise the few old materials. B. A. Litvinsky, as the best expert in this field of Buddhology, was invited to cover archaeological Buddhist sites.

By that time, I had been working under him as head of the Department of History and Culture of the Ancient East for about 10 years, and we were working together on the collective monograph "Asia: Dialogues of Civilizations" (St. Petersburg, 1996). So I was familiar not only with the work of Boris Anatolyevich (which I had studied since I was a graduate student), with his invaluable contribution to the study of the material heritage of Central Asia, but also with Boris Anatolyevich as an expert on various aspects of ancient Buddhism. It is no coincidence that our coryphaeus served on the editorial boards of several Western journals and encyclopedias, preparing materials for them. Moreover, I specifically represented his responsibility and insistence on his own work. His encyclopedic education, excellent knowledge of special scientific literature on the subject (coupled with a remarkable memory), certainly did honor to any publication in which he participated.

Boris Anatolyevich eagerly took up a new "type of writing" for him and the format of storage (distribution) - electronic. Independently compiled a short list of articles (30), which included monuments of Central Asia, "rare guests of encyclopedias". Most of them were personally found, excavated and examined by B. A. Litvinsky and his colleagues-Soviet archaeologists. All articles, of course, were approved and accepted.

Boris Anatolyevich worked in the old-fashioned way-with a fountain pen, and then gave it to a typewriter or computer. I received from him the finished text on floppy disks and passed it to the literary editor-Elena Ivanovna Lakireva. After editing it, I read the printed version on behalf of Boris Anatolyevich, looking for typos and removing the slightest flaws.

In 1998, due to the economic collapse, work on the encyclopedia was completed for new authors. Publishers prepared two discs, consisting of 98% of the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia", and put them on sale, without providing" copyright copies " even on floppy disks. Boris Anatolyevich was not interested in electronic products at all and did not attach any importance to the fact that he did not see the final result of his work.

Only now, almost 15 years later, when I was preparing for the anniversary of B. A. Litvinsky, did I remember this work of his. Of course, one can regret that it is not known which articles (and in what final version) were included in the"Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius". I don't have Boris Anatolyevich's manuscript either. However, it is precisely verified from the bibliography that these works have never been independently published in a journal-book version in Russia, and the author did not include them in his bibliographic lists, although now electronic works are equated with written ones.

I hope that no one will doubt the necessity and usefulness of this publication. No one better than Boris Anatolyevich could evaluate archaeological sites and historical names in such a concise form, give them succinct descriptions, identify common and special things in each of them, and review dozens of books and articles for an accurate and balanced description of an ancient sacred place, temple, stupa. This kind of talent can be called "encyclopedic skill". And this one

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the publication allows us to get acquainted with this little-known side of the multi-faceted activity of the scientist.

Due to the fact that this version is a magazine version, I have divided 30 articles into two parts: the first is 17 articles on monuments (and names) of Indo - Buddhist culture, including Afghanistan and Borobudur, and the second is on archaeological sites of Central Asia, including Dunhuang.

Unfortunately, I have not preserved a version of these texts after the literary editing, although there are a lot of typos, omissions and other flaws in the computer set (including in the literature lists that the author clearly did not check). Surely, this is the result of the work of computer "scribes" (by the way, Boris Anatolyevich's handwriting was difficult to read). Therefore, I tried to correct such errors on my own, without subjecting the texts to abbreviations, permutations, and other editorial "contributions".

Since I started creating my own various dictionaries of Buddhism, which were published more or less regularly from 2000 to 2011 (including in the form of appendices to my major monographs) after studying with Boris Anatolyevich, I can probably consider myself his student in this difficult encyclopedic profession. The works of B. A. Litvinsky serve as an example of scientific attitude to subjects, scientific impartiality.

V. P. ANDROSOV

AJANTA

Ajanta is a cave monastery in Maharashtra, India, named after a nearby village. There are 27 caves carved into the sheer rock that rises 550 m above the river, and steps lead up to them from the river level. Some of the caves date back to the second century BC, while the majority date back to the fifth and seventh centuries. Among the earliest is cave No. 10. It has an elongated absidal plan - the rear end wall is semicircular. Parallel to the outline of the walls is a series of columns that divide the interior space into three naves - a wide central and two narrow side. At the back is a circular stupa, whose hemisphere rests on a two-stage, also round, base. The facades of these sanctuaries had a very spectacular design. In cave No. 9, the entrance portal had the form of a rectangular frame, in which a wide relief arch with a keel-shaped projection in the castle was inscribed. Among the shrines of the V-VII centuries, two continue the old tradition, but the main part is arranged differently. In the walls of the hall are cut entrances leading to the cells, where statues of the Buddha were installed. The ceiling is flat and domed in some parts of the building.

The flat ceiling is divided into panels with geometric and floral patterns, and the walls are completely covered with paintings. The entrance is decorated with a portico or terrace with two pillars supporting a relief frieze. One of the architects who created the complex was Achala.

According to the description of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (VII century AD), the complex also had a huge ground monastery (now not preserved), in which there was a stone sculpture of the Buddha, its size exceeded 20 m, the walls were covered with images from the life of the Buddha. Outside the monastery, to the north and south, there were stone sculptures of elephants.

All the cave surfaces were covered with wall paintings, which are now preserved only in 13 caves. Multi-figure compositions of murals correspond to the tasks of decorating a complex architectural space. The color scheme includes a lot of orange, brown, white, red, green, blue and yellow. With the help of penumbrums, the artist created the impression of three-dimensionality. Decorative ornaments were used in the murals, especially on the ceilings. The main theme of the murals is Buddhist, there are a lot of paintings that reproduce the life story of the Buddha, starting from the scene of the birth of the Buddha by his mother Mahamaya to his death and transition to nirvana. At the same time, the life and prophetic mission of the Buddha is shown among many people, hence the court scenes (birth,

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childhood and youth of the Buddha), scenes with followers and enemies. No less frequent are the scenes from the jatakas, where everyday life is shown in all its diversity, as the jatakas contain legendary stories about the past lives of the future Buddha. Along with the Buddha, bodhisattvas and other characters of the Buddhist pantheon were depicted. The earthly in these complex compositions is fused with the heavenly and organically united with nature. The Buddhist frame reflects the artist's contemporary life and its realities. Despite the canonicity of the images, Ajanta's painting is stunning in its perfection, humanistic beginning and deep philosophical content. Ajanta painting is the highest achievement of ancient Indian art, its greatest contribution to world civilization.

Korotskaya A. Treasures of Indian Art, Moscow, 1966; Tyulyaev S. I. Iskusstvo Indii, Moscow, 1968; Arhitektura Vostochnoi i Yugo-Vostochnoi Azii do seredni XIX v. [The Art of India: Treasures of Indian Art, Moscow, 1966; Tyulyaev S. I. Iskusstvo Indii, Moscow, 1968; Arhitektura Vostochnoi i Yugo-Vostochnoi Azii do sredni XIX v.]. Ed. by A.M. Pribytkova, Moscow, 1971 (Obshchaya istoriya arkhitektury, vol. 9); Yazdani G. and others. Ajanta. Vol. 1-3. Oxford, 1931-1946; Singh M. India. Paintings from Ajanta Caves. New York, 1954; Gupta P.Dh. and Mahajan D.D. Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves. Bombay, 1962; Rowland D. The Art and Architecture of India. Buddhist. Hindu. Jain. Baltimore, 1967.

AMARAVATI

Amaravati is a Buddhist stupa near the city of the same name and on the site of the ancient city of Dharanikotta (Andhra Pradesh, India). The structure was erected approx. 200 BC, rebuilt (made larger) and richly decorated ca. 200 A.D. Judging by the inscription, the current fence also dates back to this time. Now the diameter of the stupa is 51 m, the height is over 30 m. The hemisphere of the stupa body rests on a low cylindrical drum with a larger diameter than the base of the hemisphere. A ceremonial detour was made along the newly formed upper platform, which once had a balustrade. The fence in four places had passages marked out by high columns, on which sculptures of lions were erected. The drum and partly the surface of the hemisphere, the balustrade and the fence were decorated with stone friezes with reliefs (over 100 slabs have been preserved). They are made with unique art, there are three (or four) consecutive styles.

On the friezes (they are made on limestone slabs of greenish-white color), scenes related to the world of Buddhist performances unfold. Iconography is also associated with the Kushan art of northern India, and especially with Mathura. However, the local jet prevails. It is the fullness of the Buddha's faces and a certain warmth of the concept that brings us closer to Mathura, but in Amaravati, the Buddha's heads have a narrower oval outline, and the same can be said about the faces and figures of other characters. Relief compositions in Amaravati are incomparably more complex than in the synchronous schools of Kushan sculpture (Gandhara and Mathura). Amaravati friezes are characterized by dynamism, expression and even drama, which is enhanced by the rhythm inherent in these scenes. Amaravati sculpture - one of the greatest achievements of Ancient Indian art-was of exceptional importance for the further development of Indian sculpture.

Galerkina O. I., Bogdanov F. A. Iskusstvo Indii v drevnosti i sredniye veka [The Art of India in Ancient and Middle Ages], Moscow, 1963; Tyulyaev S. I. Iskusstvo Indii, Moscow, 1968; Sivaramurti C. Amaravati Sculpture in the Madras Governemcnt Museum. Madras, 1942; Barrett D. Sculpturis from Amarawati in the British Museum. London, 1954; Franz H.G. Buddistische Kunst Indiens. Leipzig, 1965; Rowland B. The Art and Architecture of India Buddhist. Hindu. Jain. Baltimore, 1967.

ANGKOR

Angkor (more precisely, Angkor Wat) is a temple complex located 2 km south of the city of Anchor Thom (Cambodia). Built during the reign of King Suviyarman II (1113-1145) by his architect son, Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most famous architectural monument. The ensemble is grandiose in size: length approx. 1500 m, width 1300 m. The monument, built of sandstone, is enclosed in a rectangular outer fence.

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The main entrance is located on the west side, from which the visitor got to the "entrance pavilion". Inside the fence was the bulk of the temple proper. It looks like a step pyramid. The base was a platform 3.5 m high, on it stands a smaller platform 7 m high, on which rests a platform 13 m high, on the third platform is placed a central tower 42 m high, so that the total height reaches 62.5, i.e. about the height of Notre-Dame Cathedral, built around the same era. The platforms had roundabout columned galleries, pavilions, turrets, numerous niches, pediments, etc. The walls are completely covered with decorative carvings. The gallery of the first tier is decorated with bas-reliefs, the length of which is 600 m. The space of the second tier is divided by covered galleries into compartments-courtyards, in small buildings-"libraries" were stored manuscripts of ancient works. There were also reliefs-figures of two thousand celestial maidens-apsaras. The third tier was the foot of the central tower. The stairwells were similarly richly decorated. The architecture of Angkor Wat is characterized by the absence of closed volumes, the "openness" of architecture, its plasticity, and the richness of the ornamental design of the walls.

The temple was dedicated to Vishnu , the deity of the Hindu pantheon. Magnificent bas-reliefs celebrate the deeds of this god, but their content is not limited to this. There are a lot of scenes from the Ramayana, an ancient Indian epic that is still very revered in Cambodia, where every Khmer knows it. There are images of religious processions, images of the king-founder of the temple, battle, court and household scenes. So, in one of the scenes, the god Vishnu is depicted sitting on a huge turtle (the turtle was considered the incarnation of the god Vishnu). There are good spirits on one side of it, and evil spirits on the other. They are engaged in pulling a huge mythical snake. According to legend, as a result of this competition, animals were born, divine maidens-apsaras and even the goddess of beauty. Visitors to the temple, who knew these legends from childhood, seemed to read the myths etched in stone. Ancient sculptors with exceptional skill recreated, following the canon, images of divine characters, people, animals, and vegetation. It was a special world, which for the ancient viewer seemed to be alive and real, which was facilitated by a peculiar aesthetic and an amazing compositional flair. In addition, the temple was decorated with a round sculpture.

Lebedev Yu. D. Monuments of architecture of Cambodia, Moscow, 1960; Marshal A. Angkor / Translated from French. yaz. M., 1963; Architecture of Eastern and South-Eastern Asia to the middle of the XIX century. M., 1971 (Universal History of Architecture, vol. 9); Rybakova N. I. Art of Cambodia. M., 1977; Paumentier H. Guide aux monuments d'Angkor. Pnom-Pehn, 1960.

ANURADHAPURA

Anuradhapura is the ancient capital of Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura was a large city with a regular layout, surrounded by fortified walls and moats. The four main, heavily fortified city gates were approached by four main city thoroughfares. A large part of the city was occupied by the huge royal palace, which was about 1 km long and about that in width. The houses of rich citizens were two-and three-story and had a peristyle courtyard. Sometimes buildings were grouped around it. The city had many open pavilions (mandapas) where pilgrims rested. There were canteens, hospitals, triumphal arches (torana) and, of course, many swimming pools, baths, gardens and parks. The urban landscape was largely created by countless dagobah stupas (this name is the result of a combination of two Pali words meaning "relics" and "chamber", "storage") and Buddhist temples-vihara. The city was largely Buddhist, and its silhouette was defined by Buddhist structures. This is due to the history of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. According to local chronicles, Mahinda, the son of the Indian king Ashoka (mid-3rd century BC), brought Buddhism to Sri Lanka. Under the influence of his preaching, the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa and the nobles adopted Buddhism. According to

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The Buddhist community was given a closed territory, which included the capital and the royal palace. The same embassy brought the southern branch of the Bodhi Tree ("Buddha's Tree of Enlightenment"), and the tree was planted in Anuradhapura, where the Bodhi cult was developed. Soon, the right collarbone and other relics of the Buddha were brought from India and the first stupa, dagoba Thuparama (c. 244 BC), was built. Above the round, horizontally profiled three-tiered base (diameter-approx. 24 m) stands the dome-shaped body of the stupa, at the top - a round two-tiered base of the spire with seven umbrellas. There were stairs on four sides. The stupa was surrounded by three ring fences. Even larger is Dagobah Ruvakeli. The diameter of its dome reaches 83 m, height - 60 m. As in many other stupas, the relics were hidden in a special chamber placed inside the body of dagobah, made of burnt bricks. This chamber, according to written sources, was painted with rows of animals and birds, and there the relics were placed in a vessel made of precious metal with ornaments made of precious stones. At the base of the stairs were four semicircular altar platforms decorated with exquisite sculptural decoration.

Vihara monasteries were complexes that included ritual and residential parts, as well as service rooms. Built in the second century BC, the famous Lohapasada Monastery (or "Bronze Palace") is being reconstructed as a nine-story building based on ancient descriptions. The upper parts were built of wood and decorated with inserts of precious stones and ivory, the roof was covered with bronze sheets. The monastery burned down in the fourth century and was rebuilt as a five-story building. Now only granite columns remain from the building.

Buildings were decorated with sculptures and wall paintings.

Anuradhapura was the Buddhist center of Sri Lanka, from where Buddhism spread, and with it-the center of Buddhist scholarship and art.

Lit.: Universal History of Arts, Vol. II. Moscow, 1961; Semeka E. S. History of Buddhism in Ceylon, Moscow, 1969; Architecture of East and South-East Asia to the middle of the XIX century, Moscow, 1971; Coomaraswami A. K. Arts and Crafts of India and Ceylon. Edinburgh, 1913; Paranavitana S. The Stupa in Ceylon // Archaeological Service of Ceylon. Memoirs. Vol. V. Colombo, 1947; Geiger W. Culture of Ceylon in Mediaeval Times. Wiesbaden, 1960; Franz H. Die buddhistische Plastik auf Ceylon. Berlin, 1963; Rowland B. The Art and Architecture of India. Buddhist. Hindu. Jain. Baltimore, 1967.

Bamian

Bamyan is the name of a mountain valley and its capital 250 km west of Kabul, Afghanistan. The mountain range that borders the valley from the north also contains a Buddhist complex that extends for 1.8 km. In the ridge there are over 750 located in several (up to six) tiers of Buddhist caves that are part of the Buddhist center. It includes six rock-cut Buddhas (three colossal, including 55 m high, and three smaller ones). According to a seventh-century Chinese pilgrim, there was also an even more colossal figure of Buddha in nirvana - it and the two above-ground monasteries mentioned by him are not preserved, but there are ruins of a stupa. Colossal Buddha figures were carved into the rock, then covered with two layers (clay and plaster) and modeled. Perhaps the faces were covered with a bronze gilded mask. Among the caves there are austerely simple residential and beautifully designed cult ones. The complex has magnificent paintings, reliefs, sculptures. Iranian influence is noted. Sanskrit manuscripts were also found.

The date of the colossal sculptures is ca. 600 AD, and the Buddhist center existed until the 9th century AD.

Lit.: Pugachenkova G. A. Iskusstvo Afghani [The Art of Afghanistan]. Three Etudes, Moscow, 1963; Godard A., Hackin J. Les antiquites bouddhiques de Bamiyan. Paris, 1928; Tarzi Z. L'architecture et le decor rupestre des grottes de Bamiyan. Vol. I-II. Paris, 1977; Klimburg-Sater D. The Kingdom of Bamiyan. Buddhist Art and Culture of the Hindu Kush. Rome, 1989.

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BORABUDUR

Borabudur is a Buddhist structure of the 8th-9th centuries in the central part of Java (Indonesia). It was built in the valley of Kedu, on and around a rocky hill, that is, the hill that served as a platform was covered from top to bottom by this structure. Borabudur is only the central part of a grandiose architectural composition that has not been fully realized.

The monument has the appearance of a terraced, i.e. stepped, pyramid with a natural core hidden by buildings. The lower part is formed by five square terraces raised on top of each other in the plan. The lower one measures 113 × 113 m, while the overlying ones are smaller and smaller in size. However, these terraces are called square by convention, because each side of them has a wide protrusion in the center and an embedded corner part, so in fact it is a twenty-hexagon on the base of a square. In the middle of the central ledge on each side, there is a staircase leading up to the base of the central stupa. The entrance to the stairs is decorated with richly ornamented entrance arches, on the sides there are sculptural figures of lions guarding the entrance. A balustrade surrounded each terrace. The walls and balustrades are completely covered with reliefs. A circular terrace is inscribed in the square of the upper terrace area, and above it, one above the other, two other smaller terraces, i.e. the pyramid continues, but the terraces are already round. Along the edge of these terraces are small stupas. They are hollow inside, and sculptural figures of seated Buddhas can be seen through the latticed walls. The total number of small stupas and sculptures is 72. This entire pyramid of terraces is the base (or platform) for the central, circular stupa. The diameter of its base reaches 11 m. The stupa is hollow, and a large sculptural figure of the Buddha was placed in the inner room (it was not finished). The total height of the giant structure is 42 m. It was built from carefully crafted stone blocks laid without mortar.

Borabudur is not only a magnificent architectural monument, but also a true treasure trove of Buddhist art. The walls of the terraces were dissected by 432 deep niches, in which were placed sculptural figures of seated Buddhas. Their hands are arranged in different ways, the position of the hands (mudra) symbolizes different moments in the life of the founder of the teaching. The space between the niches and the balustrades is covered with reliefs. These are 1,460 large and 1,212 small relief panels, the total length of which is five and a half kilometers! These reliefs show the life of the Buddha in his previous incarnations, the life of his parents, the birth and all subsequent stages of the Teacher's life. The sculpture also reflects the everyday life of that era. The sculptures are extremely expressive.

Borabudur was the center of a large Buddhist complex. Monks, believers, and pilgrims flocked here. At first, they made a sacred circumambulation of the shrine - "pradakshina" on a special platform at the base, then continued it, bypassing one terrace after another, until they found themselves at the central stupa.

Lit-ra: Art of Indonesia, Moscow, 1959; Architecture of the countries of South-East Asia, Moscow, 1960; Architecture of East and South-East Asia / Edited by A.M. Pribytkova, Moscow, 1971 (Universal History of Architecture, vol. 9); Mus P. Borabudur. Esquisse d une histoire de bouddhisme fondeec sur la critique archeologique des textes. Hanoi, 1935; Kempers B. Ancient Indonesian Art. Amsterdam, 1959; Forman B. Die buddhistische Heiligtum Borabudur. Prag, 1980.

GANDHARA

Gandhara is the name of an ancient province, state entity, and people in northwestern Hindustan. The Gandhara state sometimes included the adjacent regions of Afghanistan. It was already known in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, when it was part of the Achaemenid state (VI-IV centuries BC). On the territory of Gandhara, "Gandharic art" was formed (I century A.D. - IV century A.D.), the area of distribution of which

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There was also southeastern and central Afghanistan and which had a great influence on the art of other parts of India and adjacent countries, particularly Central Asia. Gandhara was an area of wide and deep spread of Buddhism, which had a serious impact on all aspects of life in this area. Various branches (schools) of Buddhism are being developed here, Buddhist theology is being developed, and Buddhist writings are being created. There were many Buddhist monasteries in the country, and other Buddhist structures were built, namely stupas. Urban planning activities, as well as the construction of Buddhist religious buildings, became most widespread during the Kushan Dynasty (see), especially during the reign of King Kanishka (see). Among the urban Buddhist centers, we can mention Charsadra (Pushkalavati), Shaikhan-dheri, Taxila (see), Butkara, Takhti-Bahi, Hadda (see), etc.

Gandharic Buddhist architecture and art are full of originality. They were born in an environment of close interaction between Indian and Hellenistic art and under a certain influence of Roman art. Structures were often built of stone, with shale being preferred. It was at this time that the layout and appearance of the main types of Buddhist structures - chaitya, vihara, sangharama, stupa (see) - were formed, which then changed in time and space. Gandharic architecture is characterized by a rich decorative decoration not only of the interiors, but also of the external surfaces of buildings. The rhythm of architectural divisions was harmoniously combined and enriched by the plastic reliefs and sculptures. At the same time, under the strong influence of Hellenistic sculpture, the image of the Buddha, bodhisattvas and all the characters of the Buddhist pantheon was formed. Gandharic art developed complex compositions that reflected scenes from the life of the Buddha and his previous incarnations. They also included secular characters, who sometimes formed whole compositions. Many works of Gandharic art are among the masterpieces of world art.

Moscow, 1982; Foucher A. L'art greco-bouddhique du Gandhara. Vol. I (1905), II / 1 (1918), II / 2 (1922), II / 3, 1951. Paris; Ingholt H. Gandharan Art in Pakistan. New York, 1957; Marshall J. The Buddhist Art of Gandhara. Cambridge, 1960; Faccenna D. Sculptures from the Sacred Area of Butkara 1. Rome, 1964; Hallade M. Gandharan Art of North India. New York, 1968; Tissot F. Gandhaara. Paris, 1985.

KANISHKA

Kanishka (110-133 AD) - the most prominent representative of the Kushan dynasty. For more information about his political and economic activities, see in the article "Kushans". In his Rabatak inscription, he calls himself a "god" who received the kingdom from the gods. He was the great-grandson of the founder of the Kujula dynasty, Kadfiz. The official inscriptions used Greek and Bactrian (belonging to the Eastern Iranian languages). According to the available materials, Kanishka was a follower of Zoroastrianism, but he was tolerant of Indian religions, especially Buddhism. During his era, Buddhism in India and Central Asia received a significant boost, and Buddhist art and architecture are developing brilliantly. According to Buddhist tradition, Kanishka was an active patron of Buddhism.

Gafurov B. G. Tadjiki [Tajiks]. Drevneishaya, drevnyaya i srednevekovaya istoriya [Ancient, Ancient and Medieval History], edited by B. A. Litvinsky, Moscow, 1972; History of civilization of Central Asia. Vol. II / Ed. by J. Harmatta. Paris, 1994; Sims-Williams J. Gribb. A New Bactrian Inscription of Kanishka the Great // Silk Road Art and Archaeology. Vol. 4. Kamukara, 1995/96.

KAPILAVASTU

Kapilavastu (or Kapilapura) is the birthplace of the Buddha, one of the four sacred sites of Buddhism. Legends trace the origin of this city to the time of the mythical king Ikshvaku, somewhere on the southern slopes of the Himalayas in a very picturesque place. In the Buddhist work "Lalitavistara", in stories about the birth, childhood and youth of the Buddha

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there are enthusiastic descriptions of the flourishing city and the grandeur of the royal palace where Raja Sudhoddana, the Buddha's father, ruled. But these descriptions are certainly extremely exaggerated, for in other Buddhist writings Kapilavastu is described as a small and insignificant city. However, the Buddha was not born in the city itself, but in the Lumbini grove (or garden) located in its vicinity. Kapilavastu was the place of the Buddha's childhood and youth, which is celebrated in literature and art. In Gandharic reliefs (see Gandhara), the design of the Buddha from the palace and the sadness experienced by the deity - incarnation of Kapilavastu are often used. The Buddha visited his native city twice after enlightenment, the second time after the destruction of the city by King Vidudabha. There is evidence that Ashoka made a pilgrimage here. The first historically reliable evidence of this city is found in Chinese pilgrims of the 5th and 7th centuries AD. In their time, the place of the city was only ruins, there was no population, there was a desert area all around. It is possible that Chinese pilgrims mistook various ruins for the location of Kapilavastu.

All this makes it difficult to accurately locate ancient Kapilavastu, but it is obvious that we are talking about Nepal.

Лит-ра: Watters Th. Kapilavastu in the Buddhist Books // Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. London, 1898; Smith V.A. Kapilavastu // Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics / Ed. J. Hastings. Vol. VII. Edinburgh, 1914; Buddhist Shrines in India. Delhi, 1968.

CARLY (or CARLA)

Karli (or Karla) is a cave Buddhist monastery in Maharashtra. India). It is located near the village of the same name, 5 km northwest of the city of Pune. It is the largest and most ornate cave temple of Indian Hinayana Buddhist art. In front of the entrance there are two free-standing columns (stambha) with a polygonal trunk, a lotus-shaped capital, above which there are figures of lions, which in ancient times supported huge metal wheels. In the lobby, the walls were covered to the ceiling with multi-tiered arched reliefs, the lower tier formed a row of lions. The huge inner hall (3.8 x 14 m at a height of 14 m) had an absidal plan - with a semicircular rounding at the rear end. Two rows of columns divide the interior space into three naves, the trunks of the columns are sixteen-sided, smooth, and the capitals are lotus-shaped. At the rear end of the colonnade has the form of a semicircle, encircling a round stupa in plan. Some of the sculptural decorations at the entrance are more recent and date back to the 6th century AD.

Лит-ра: Fergusson J., Burgess J. Cave temples of India. London, 1880; Sarkar H. Studies in Early Buddhist architecture of India. Delhi, 1966; Rowland B. The Art and Architecture of India. Buddhist. Indu. Jain. Baltimor, 1969; Dahejia V. Early Buddhist Rock temples. A Chronology. London, 1972; Kail O.C. Buddhist Cave Tempos of India. Bombay, 1975.

KUSHANS

Kushans-the name of a dynasty and state (Kushan state) in Central Asia and India in the I-IV centuries AD. The origin of the dynasty remains largely unclear. According to Chinese sources, the people that the Chinese knew as the Yuezhi advanced from the depths of Central Asia to the south of Central Asia and the north of Afghanistan and defeated them in the second half. II century BC. e. the Greek-Bactrian state that existed here, organized 5 principalities. Later, one of them, which bore the name "Kushan", became predominant and under the leadership of King Kujula Kadfis (c. 30-80 AD) created the Kushan state. The minting of Kushan coins began. The state began to expand, and under the next king (Vima I Takto) began to seize Indian lands. Under his son (Vima II Kadfis), the Kushan state expanded even more, received its final form, and a state apparatus was formed. Especially visible innovations are found in

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areas of economics. Vima Kadfis implemented a reform of the coin business-this was necessary to create the economic prerequisites for the unification of heterogeneous parts of a huge state. Gold coins were put into circulation, and copper coins of three sizes also participated in circulation. They have an image of the Indian deity Shiva, which indicates that this king was a follower of the Shaivism religion.

The Kushan state reached its maximum power under a king named Kanishka, who ruled around 110-133 AD (see a separate article about him). His state included a significant part of Northern India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and the southern part of Uzbekistan. The regions of Bukhara, Samarkand, Ferghana, and part of East Turkestan (the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China) were not permanently included and were in political dependence. Although Kanishka himself professed Zoroastrianism, he was a patron of Buddhism. Under Kanishka, the Kushan state reached the apogee of not only political, but also economic power. Among the subsequent kings, we should mention Vasudeva I, who reigned for over three decades (c. 184-220 AD). Under him, the culture and religion of the ruling house underwent a significant indianization. Then gradually there was a weakening of the Kushan state and its disintegration, which lasted until the IV century AD.

Under the Kushans, the cities of Central Asia and India achieved unprecedented growth, international and domestic trade developed, and the Great Silk Road functioned. They adopted Bactrian (Eastern Iranian) as the official language. There was an unprecedented rise in architecture, art, and literature.

Gafurov B. G. Tadjiki [Tajiks]. Drevneishaya, drevnaya i srednevekovaya istoriya [Ancient, Ancient and Medieval History], edited by B. A. Litvinsky, Moscow, 1972; Stavisky B. Ya. Kushanskaya Baktriya: problemy istorii i kul'tury, Moscow, 1977; Puri B. N. India under Kushanas. Bombay, 1965; History of civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. II / Ed. by J. Harmatta. Paris, 1994.

KUSHANIGARA

Kushanigara (or Kushinara) is the place of the Buddha's death and transition to Nirvana, one of the four holy places of Buddhism. Kushanigara is the name of a city that, according to legend, was founded by the king of Kusa. In the time of the Buddha, according to Buddhist sources (jatakas), it was "a small city in the jungle." It gained its significance only in connection with the death of the Buddha. Crowds of pilgrims have always been eager to go there. Available evidence suggests that the city was located on the site of ruins lying near the city of Kasla (Uttar Pradesh, India), 50 km from the city of Gorakhpur. There are many remnants of Buddhist shrines and stupas here. According to epigraphic data, there was a "mahaparinirvana Monastery" and a "Bandana Monastery" ("Diadem Monastery") in Kushanigara.

The stupa that Ashoka built has not yet been excavated. There are also remnants of the Parinirvana Chaitya. Details of a huge Buddha figure in nirvana were also found here.

According to Buddhist tradition, after the death of the Buddha, who passed into nirvana, his earthly body was transported with royal honors to the gates of the city of Kushanigara and, according to religious regulations, shortly before sunrise, was put on fire. When other cities and tribes found out about this, they demanded that they be given the sacred ashes (sarira) formed during the cremation of the Buddha's body. However, the ruling family of Kushanigara Malla, who himself carried out the cremation, considered these ashes their property and flatly refused to give them up. Then the troops of other cities came to Kushanigara and besieged it. At the head of the besiegers were prominent representatives of the Shakya family (from which the Buddha himself came), who ruled in the city of Kapilavastu. The battle seemed inevitable, but it and the inevitable casualties were avoided thanks to the brahmana Drona, a disciple of the Buddha, who reminded that the Buddha preached peace and non-harm to any living being. Drona divided the ashes equally among the pretenders, and they broke the siege and returned to their homes. This scene was developed in Gandharic art and is common in Buddhist iconography, particularly in Central Asia.

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Lit-ra: Oldenberg G. Budda. His life, teaching and community. Moscow, 1884; Diakonova N. V. Osada Kushanigary / / Vostochny Turkestan and Central Asia. History. Culture. Communications / Edited by B. A. Litvinsky, Moscow, 1984; Smith V. A. Kusinagara / / Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics / Ed.by J. Hastings. Edinburgh, 1914; Buddhist Shrine in India. Delhi, 1968.

MATHURA

Mathura is a city in Uttar Pradesh, India. German archaeologists (Hertel) have studied in detail the rural settlement of Sonkh in the Mathura district. The oldest settlement appeared here in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. In the second half of the 1st millennium BC, the settlement of Sonkh was part of the Mathura domain, which was ruled by independent dynasties, or satraps, and from the first century AD it became part of the Kushan state. At this time, Sonkha was undergoing intensive construction, and there was an apsidal temple dedicated to the Naga (divine serpent) cult, which was a member of the Hindu pantheon and at the same time was revered as a demigod by Buddhists. In addition, a Kushan sanctuary was excavated in the village of Mat, which had a rectangular shape (33 × 14 m) and, apparently, a double outer wall. Inside was a sanctuary that looked like two concentric circles. A sculpture of the Kushan king Kanishka and other sculptures were found here. At the top of a hill within the city itself is a small temple. Numerous sculptures originate from here. From this and other hills, both inside the city and in its vicinity, there are numerous art monuments dating back to the II-I centuries. B.C.-IV-VI centuries A.D. Some of the shrines were temples of deified kings.

The art represented in these finds belongs to a special branch of Indian art called "Mathura art"or" Mathura art". It is much more indigenous and indianized than Gandharic art, but at the same time it has traces of the influence of Central Asian art.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium AD, the first purely Indian images of Buddhas were created here, which are very different from the simultaneous Hellenized images of Gandharic art (see the article "Gandhara"). The same can be said for images of bodhisattvas, including Maitreya Bodhisattva. It is in Mathura art that the most ancient Indian portraits are presented, including portraits of Kushan kings. Images and ideas of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism are reflected in Mathura art.

Sidorova V. S. Sculptura Drevnoi Indii [Sculpture of Ancient India], Moscow, 1971; Serditykh 3. K 150-letiyu pervykh arkheologicheskikh otkrytii v Mathura [To the 150th anniversary of the first archaeological discoveries in Mathura]. Вып. X. М., 1986; Rosenfield I.M. The Dynastic Art of the Kushanas. Berkeley-Los Angeles, 1967; Mukerjee B.N. Mathura and its Society. The Saka-Pahlava Phase. Calcutta, 1981; Sharma R.S. Buddhist Art of Mathura. Delhi, 1984; Hartel H. Excavations at Sonkh. Berlin, 1993 (Monographicn zur indischen Archaologic, Kunst und Philologic. Bd. 9).

NALANDA

Nalanda is the ancient name of the largest Buddhist center of the V-VIII centuries AD. The ruins are located near the village of Bargaon, south-east of Patna (Bihar, India). According to Buddhist written sources, Nalanda supposedly existed already in the VI-V centuries BC, but real archaeological finds begin only from the IV-V centuries AD, and the remains of structures belong to the V-VIII centuries. According to the descriptions of a seventh-century Chinese pilgrim, the main Buddhist structure was surrounded by a brick fence. One gate opened into a large building, followed by eight other halls. There were also tall towers, "the top of which rose above the clouds." There were courtyards surrounded by four-story rows of monks ' cells. Everything was richly decorated, the columns were ornamented, the balustrades were ornamented, and the roofs were covered with tiles, so that the sunlight " reflected in them in thousands of reflections." Right here

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there were gardens and ponds. The fact that this is not an exaggeration is evidenced by the estimates contained in Indian inscriptions of a somewhat later time. And here we are talking about "a series of viharas, the tops of which touch the clouds", about Nalanda - "a beautiful garland of the Earth". The complex was originally built by King Kumaragupta (415-455 AD), and subsequent kings built more and more structures and put up sculptures, including a six-story shrine and a standing bronze figure of the Buddha about 26 m high.

Excavations have uncovered only isolated and destroyed elements of this and other complexes: shrines, monasteries, and terraced stupas. All this has a well-developed profile with many Buddhist sculptures. Bronze sculptures have also been found. Beautiful wall paintings have been found in the vicinity of Nalanda.

Nalanda monasteries had, according to various sources, from 3-4 to 10 thousand monks. Buddhist theologians lived and worked here, writing their own works and commentaries on other Buddhist works. Buddhist scholars also studied and taught secular literature, grammar, philology, medicine, and art, as well as architects and painters. Nalanda is the largest center of science and literature of Ancient India, it was a true university where hundreds and thousands of Hindus and people from other countries received spiritual and secular knowledge.

Lit.: Ghosh A. Nalanda. IV cd. Delhi, 1956; Dutt S. Buddhist Monks and Monasteries in India. Their History and their Contribution to Indian Culture. London, 1962; Joshi L. Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India (During the 7th and 8th Centuries A.D.). Delhi-Patna-Varanasi;, 1967; Franz H.G. Buddhistische Kunst Indiens. Leipzig, 1965, Rowland B. The Art and Architecture of India. Buddhist. Hindu. Jain. Baltimore, 1967; Stewart M.L. Nalanda Mahavihara. London, 1989 (BAR International Series, N 529).

PAGODA

Pagoda (from Kit. Baota "tower of treasures") - a multi-tiered tower-like structure containing relics associated with the Buddha. The idea of the pagoda originates from the Indo-Buddhist tower stupa; the pagoda received its design in China due to the fusion of two traditions: a tower-type stupa and local non-religious tower structures. Initially, pagodas had three tiers, then the number of tiers reached nine or more. Pagodas were made of wood, brick, and even stone. There is evidence of the existence of pagodas in China as early as the fifth century A.D. The oldest surviving brick pagoda is the Songyue Pagoda (520). Its base is polygonal, decorated with pilasters, capitals, and sculptures. Above is a giant cone divided by cornices into 15 tiers. Total height-40 m. The Dayanta Pagoda ("Big Wild Goose Pagoda") with a height of 64 m (ser. VII - early VIII c.) is very famous. In the X-XIII centuries. pagodas are becoming more decorative and diverse. Pagodas in China were built until modern times. Pagodas were also common outside of China - in Korea, Japan, etc.

Ashchepkov, E. A., Architecture of China, Moscow, 1959; Architecture of Eastern and South-Eastern Asia to the middle of the XIX century, ed. by A.M. Pribytkova, Moscow-L., 1971 (Universal History of Architecture, vol. 9); Boerschmann, E. Chinesishu Pagoden. Berlin-Leipzig, 1931; Sickman L. and Soper A. The Art and Architecture of China. Harmondsworth, 1956; Franz H.G. Pagody, Turmtempel, Stupa. Graz, 1978; History and Development Chinese Architecture. Compiled by Institute of the History of Natural Sciences Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing, 1986.

STUPA

Stupa is one of the main types of Buddhist cult architecture. Even before the advent of Buddhism, the term" stupa "was used in the sense of" top of the head"," top","pile or elevation (pillar) of earth". Later, one of the main meanings of this word became "a Buddhist monument erected over the sacred relics (relics) of the Buddha or on the place where he worked." The stupa usually consisted of a base, a body, a hemisphere, a spire with umbrellas decreasing upwards. Early stupas were circular in plan. One of the most famous examples of a stupa is the stupa in Sanchi (India, see).

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It is believed that it was built during the time of Ashoka, the famous Indian king and patron saint of Buddhism (c. 250 BC). Then this original stupa became the inner core of a larger stupa, it was rebuilt and supplemented. Now the base of the stupa has the form of a round drum, on which the hemisphere of the stupa rests. The hemisphere is crowned with a stone cube-harmika, from which a vertical spire with umbrellas grows. You can climb the stairs to the upper plane of the drum and follow the circular dofolir around the spherical dome to make the sacred circumambulation-pradakshina. In the center of the stupa was a chamber with sacred relics. The stupa is 16.5 m high (23.6 m up to the top umbrella), the base diameter is 36.6 m. The stupa is surrounded by a sacred fence-vedika, consisting of stone pillars and horizontal stone beams. The fence is divided by four powerful gates-torana, oriented to the cardinal directions. The stone torans were completely covered with reliefs.

Round stupas were also built inside rock temples of the late 1st-early 2nd millennium BC. e. They were also found in many ground-based Buddhist structures of the I-IV centuries AD, for example, the Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila (India), stupas in Hadda (Afghanistan), on Fayaz Tepe (Uzbekistan), in Miran (China). Such stupas were made inside the circular outline of the premises or were built inside circular rooms in the plan, their diameter varied from 2-3 m to 30 m.

In the first centuries AD, new types of stupas developed, which spread beyond India, in particular, the stupa with a rectangular and rectangular stepped base, dissected by pilasters and niches and decorated with reliefs. The base of some stupas was polygonal or star-shaped, with grand staircases rising from one or (later) from four sides. There are also stupas of the tower type, they are distributed in Central Asia and in China, where they are based on a pagoda (see a separate article). There were other types of stupas, such as hollow ones inside. Large stupas were often located in a ring of small stupas. Believers took miniature models of stupas on trips, and they also gave them to Buddhist temples. Stupas were erected in India (before the V-VI centuries AD), in other Buddhist countries-to this day. Believers gave them miraculous powers, and various symbolic representations are associated with them. The stupa played an important role in Buddhist celebrations and ceremonies.

Tyulyaev S. I. Iskusstvo Indii [The Art of India], Moscow, 1968; Korotskaya A. A. Architecture of India in the Early Middle Ages, Moscow, 1964; Litvinsky Yu. A., Zeymal T. I. Some aspects of stupa hierarchy and semantics in Central Asia and India // Ancient India. Istoriko-kul'turnye svyazi, M., 1982; Benisti M. Etude sur le stupa de l'Inde Ancienne / / Bulletin dc l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient. T. L/l. Paris, 1960; The Stupa. Its Religions, Historacal and Architectural Significance/ Ed. by A.L. Dallapiccola. Wiesbaden, 1980.

TAXILA

Taxila is the Greek-Roman name of the ancient Indian city of Takshashila, the ruins of which are located 35 km northwest of the city of Rawalpindi (Pakistan). The ruins occupy (together with the immediate surroundings) about 17 sq. km. The first settlements on this site appeared in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC, and in the VII-VI centuries BC a city appears. The city of VI-II centuries BC was located on the hill of Bhir Mound, but gradually it moved to a new place called Sirkap, where life continued from the II century BC to the I century AD. Then the city was again moved to a new place, 1.6 km from the former, in the area of Sirsukh (IIn its heyday, it was a large, well-planned and well-maintained city with a grid of streets and blocks of houses. The city was not only an important political and economic center, but also a cultural, scientific and religious Buddhist center. In the city itself and in its environs there were a significant number of Buddhist structures - stupas, shrines, monasteries. There is a Large monastery in Dharmarajika, a Large Monastery in Kalavan, a monastery and sanctuary in Jauliana, etc.

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Il'in G. F. The ancient Indian City of Taxila, Moscow, 1958; Marchall I. Taxila, vol. I-III. Cambridge, 1951; Dani A.H. The Historic City of Taxila. Tokyo, 1986.

HADZA

Hadda is a large Buddhist center located 9 km southeast of the city of Jalalabad (Ninrahar province, Republic of Afghanistan). A vast territory (about 15 square kilometers) with many thousands of land-based monasteries, stupas, and artificial caves. Monastic complexes often include one or more main stupas and many small votive (dedicatory) stupas. Tepe Kalan, 120 m long, stands out from the large monasteries. It was here that a gold reliquary decorated with precious stones was found. Monasteries were often rectangular with a courtyard facing the cells located around the perimeter. A huge number of individual reliefs and sculptures and entire sculptural scenes (for example, the scene of the water element with fish in Tepe Shutur), as well as gold, silver and stone reliquaries, coins, Indian inscriptions, etc. were discovered in Hadda. They are among the best works of art in Gandhara. The artistic level of cave decoration is equally high.

At the beginning of the fifth century, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim visited here, and the Buddhist center was flourishing at that time. Its date is II - VI centuries A.D. The buildings of the Buddhist center excavated by French and Afghan archaeologists were destroyed during military operations.

Literature: Pugachenkova G. A. Iskusstvo Afganistan [The Art of Afghanistan]. Three Etudes, Moscow, 1963; Barthoux J. Les fouilles de Hadda, 1, III. Paris, 1930, 1933; Mustamanti S. and Mustamandi M. Nouvelles fouilles a Hadda (1966-1967) par l'Institut Afghan d'archeologic // Arts Asiatiques. Vol. 19. Paris, 1962.

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