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The development of Soviet historical science over the past five years has been fruitfully influenced by the ideas of the XXIII Congress of the CPSU and the high demands that the party places on all social sciences. Among the latter, an important place is occupied by the study of the complex and diverse history of modern and modern times. In one article, it is not possible to give an exhaustive description of all the research carried out in this area over the past five years1. The authors see their task in trying to show the most important directions in this work, identify fundamental shifts in the subject, emphasize the importance of some promising types of historical research that have developed in recent years, and also put forward some proposals for the further development of research in this branch of historical science. In this article, the authors do not concern such sections as Slavic studies, modern and modern history of the countries of the East, Africa, and Latin America.

The most important party documents published after the XXIII Congress of the CPSU2, as well as documents of the world Communist movement3 containing generalizations of the main principles of social development were used as a basis for specialists in the history of modern and modern times to study the historical process and generalize historical experience, deduce certain patterns based on the analysis of the real course of history , and trace the specific mechanism of action of the already known laws of social development. modern processes.

The nature of the problems facing historical science is associated with the sharply increased interest in theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of historical sciences.-

1 A detailed and systematic review of publications on modern and contemporary history is contained in the collection published for the XIII International Congress of Historical Sciences ("Works of Soviet Historians for 1965 - 1969", Moscow 1970).

2 "On preparations for the 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution". Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU of November 4, 1967. "50 years of the Great October Socialist Revolution. Documents and Materials", Moscow, 1967; "50 years of the Great October Socialist Revolution". Theses of the Central Committee of the CPSU. Ibid.; L. I. Brezhnev. Fifty years of great victories of socialism. Report and closing speech at the joint solemn meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR in the Kremlin Palace of Congresses on November 3-4, 1967. Ibid.; "On preparations for the 100th anniversary of the birth of V. I. Lenin". Resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU. "To the 100th anniversary of the birth of V. I. Lenin". Collection of documents and materials, Moscow, 1970; "To the centenary of the birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin". Theses of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Ibid.; L. I. Brezhnev. Lenin's cause lives and wins. Report at the joint solemn meeting of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR on April 21, 1970, dedicated to the 100th anniversary of the birth of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. In the same place.

3 "International Conference of Communist and Workers' Parties. Documents and materials. Moscow, June 5 - 17, 1969". Moscow, 1969.

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interest, which was especially intensified in the course of preparations for the 100th anniversary of the publication of Capital, the 150th anniversary of Karl Marx, the 100th anniversary of Lenin, and the 150th anniversary of the birth of Philipp Roosevelt. Engels. The monographs, collections and individual articles published during the jubilee years, as well as the materials of scientific conferences, are both studies on the history of Marxist-Leninist thought and works on the theory of historical knowledge. Studying the views of the founders of Marxism - Leninism on various problems of national and world history, Soviet historians penetrate the creative laboratory of Karl Marx, F. Engels, and V. I. Lenin, and learn methodological lessons that are so important for the further progress of our historiography .4 Historical research raises such important questions of the theory and methodology of history as the subject of historical science, the nature of the contradictions of the historical process, the specifics of the study of the history of spiritual culture, the originality of the laws studied by historical science, the role of hypotheses in historical knowledge, the system of historical science apparatus, further improvement of the principles of scientific periodization of world history, and other problems.5 Not all of them are deeply and comprehensively studied, and their research should be continued. At the same time, it is advisable to expand the range of methodological issues studied, focusing primarily on those whose insufficient development negatively affects the course of specific studies. Thus, the question of the relationship between the periodization of the world-historical process and the history of individual regions and countries needs to be developed. For example, the years 1870-1871, being a fully justified boundary between the First and second periods of modern history as a whole, cannot be considered as a boundary in the history of the southern Slavs; the main historical task of these peoples at that time was liberation from the foreign yoke, and in this regard the events of 1875-1878 became a significant boundary. Similarly, there is no reason to consider the years 1870-1871 as a milestone in the history of the United States (where, of course, the civil War of 1861-1865 was such) and England, where the 70s of the XIX century do not differ qualitatively from the 60s: the monopoly on the world market is fully preserved, there is no shift in the labor movement (it drops to the 80s), etc. Meanwhile, when studying and presenting foreign history, private periodization is often adjusted to the general one. It seems that a thorough theoretical study of the principles of periodization, and especially a study of the numerous examples of private periodization (the labor movement in Russia, the history of the party, etc.) given by V. I. Lenin, would help to raise the level of concrete research. The same applies to the principles of periodization of certain aspects of the historical process (economic history, the labor movement, international relations, various aspects of spiritual life, etc.) both in terms of world history and within individual countries and regions.

The resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures for the further development of social sciences and increasing their role in communist construction", adopted in 1967, noted: "There is a lag in the study of fundamental theoretical problems that comprehensively reveal the mechanism of action of the laws of modern social development." The Central Committee of the CPSU drew attention "to the need for a more effective and comprehensive development of major theoretical problems, the creation of generalizing works on topical issues."

4 "Marx the Historian". Collection of articles, Moscow, 1968; "V. I. Lenin and Historical Science", Moscow, 1968; "Engels and Problems of History", Moscow, 1970.

5 For methodological studies of recent years, see the article: A. O. Chubaryan. Soviet historical science after the XXIII Congress of the CPSU. Voprosy Istorii, 1971, No. 3.

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development of society and modern scientific knowledge, further improvement of the quality and effectiveness of scientific research " 6 . To formulate and solve the fundamental problems of world development, it is necessary to attract data on the history of a number of countries, compare both essentially similar processes and the specifics of individual countries. In recent years, in the further development of research on individual countries and stages of local history, generalizing works have nevertheless taken the leading place (at least in the study of modern history), especially on the problems of the world revolutionary process, the international communist and labor movement, and the development of the world system of socialism.

Scientific sessions and conferences were devoted to these problems, including international ones, which were convened in connection with the anniversaries of Karl Marx, F. Engels, and V. I. Lenin, the 50th anniversary of the Great October Socialist Revolution, and the 50th anniversary of the Comintern, 7 where fundamental questions of modern history and, in particular, its present stage were analyzed. The main attention of the participants of these forums was focused on revealing the influence of the Great October Socialist Revolution on the course of world history, showing the vitality and creative nature of the ideas of Marxism - Leninism, clarifying the basic laws of the historical process in the XX century, exposing bourgeois and revisionist perversions. The comprehensive coverage of Lenin's theory of the socialist revolution and its development by the CPSU and the world communist movement was accompanied by the statement of a number of major problems reflecting the changing historical situation, the transformation of world socialism into a decisive factor in world history, as well as new phenomena in the economy, politics, and ideology of modern imperialism. A distinctive feature of most of these materials should be considered the global approach of the authors to the root problems of modern history, which determines the generalizing nature of these publications. An example is the collective works published by the Institute of International Labor Movement of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR: "Great October and the World Revolutionary Process "(Moscow). 1967) and " Leninism and the World Revolutionary Labor Movement "(Moscow, 1969), which include articles by prominent figures of the international communist movement and monographs written by a large team of scientists. The peculiarity of these books, compared to the vast majority of collective works on universal history, is their truly collective character: all authors are equally responsible for the book, and the reader is not informed who wrote this or that chapter. This method of preparing collective works, which ensures genuine creative cooperation at all stages of work, a constant exchange of materials and ideas, which has long been part of the practice of natural sciences, is immeasurably preferable to the combined single binding and more or less connected together by a common editing of individual studies. Another feature of these publications is that they are created with the cooperation of specialists in social sciences of different profiles-historians, sociologists, economists, philosophers. Based on private research conducted earlier, and on problematic articles published in historical, economic and philosophical periodicals, we conduct research on the following issues:

6 Voprosy Istorii, 1967, No. 9, pp. 5, 6.

7 "Marx and Modernity", Moscow 1968; "Marxism and our epoch", Moscow 1968; "International significance of the Great October Socialist Revolution", Moscow 1968; "The Working Class in the struggle against imperialism, for the revolutionary renewal of the world", Moscow 1968; "Problems of the working movement", Moscow 1968; " Comintern and its revolutionary traditions", Moscow 1969; "The Working Class and the anti-monopoly struggle", Moscow 1969;" The Great October Socialist Revolution and the World Socialist System", Moscow 1969;" The October Revolution and Proletarian Internationalism", Moscow 1970.

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synchronous analysis of processes occurring at a certain stage around the world, the authors formulate conclusions of great theoretical and practical significance.

These works contain a brief historical and sociological sketch of the development of a particular trend in world history (the world revolutionary movement after October, the creative contribution of the peoples of socialist countries to the theory of the socialist revolution, the aggravation of the contradictions of imperialism, the liberation movement of the peoples of Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the development of the international communist movement, Considering the socialist revolutions in a number of European and Asian countries that took place at the final stage of the Second World War and in the first post-war years, the authors of the work "Great October and the World Revolutionary Process" show that in the essential features of these revolutions, it is necessary to distinguish, first, "national features that reflect the specifics of each country separately". and secondly, the features that are common to this entire group of countries, which "could be described as features of the corresponding historical stage" 8 . In particular, it is important to point out that " the use of traditional parliamentary forms not only helped to attract the wavering petty-bourgeois strata to the proletariat's side, but also served as an additional obstacle to the intervention of foreign reaction in the internal affairs of these countries."9
Of undoubted interest is the periodization of the history of the world communist movement proposed in this book, the frontiers of which are: the Great October Revolution, the Seventh Congress of the Comintern, and the Moscow Conferences of Communist and Workers ' Parties of 1957-1960.10 The validity of such a periodization is, of course, still subject to discussion, but from a methodological point of view, the authors ' desire to base the periodization on the internal laws of the development of the world communist movement is of fundamental importance. The authors ' approach to criticizing various bourgeois, reformist, and "left-wing" concepts is fruitful, as is the analysis of not only subjective, but also objective reasons for the persistence of some of them. Having convincingly revealed, for example, the historical character of the concept of "bourgeois nations" and "proletarian nations", the authors show that at the first stage of the liberation movement of the peoples of Asia, Africa and Latin America, this concept served as an "ideological justification for the hegemony of the national bourgeoisie" and clothed " in a theoretically untenable form a very real content, namely the general interest of the broadest strata of the population of the colonial countries in the elimination of foreign imperialist oppression, in the face of which the class contradictions between the national bourgeoisie and the working people often receded into the background." The authors emphasize that with the transition to the second stage, when there is a need for deep social and economic transformations, "even the limited positive content of this concept is gradually lost" 11 .

The book "Leninism and the World revolutionary labor movement" focuses mainly on the development of the strategy of the world communist movement and on the problems of the labor movement.

8 "Great October and the World Revolutionary Process", pp. 165, 166.

9 Ibid., p. 178. These issues are also discussed in the monograph: L. S. Yagodovsky. Popular Front in the European Countries of Socialism, Moscow, 1968.

10 "Great October and the World Revolutionary Process", p. 369.

11 Ibid., pp. 429, 430.

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Using some new materials and facts that have only recently been introduced into scientific circulation, carefully analyzing V. I. Lenin's speeches on the international labor movement, the authors consider the complex process of formation and development of strategic concepts of the world communist movement, the contribution of individual parties to the development of Marxist strategy and tactics. 12 Developing and deepening the generalization of the experience of people's democratic revolutions, the authors write: "The experience of these countries allows us to consider as a pattern of world revolution that each new country that enters the path of revolutionary transformation of society-the path of socialism-has more and more favorable conditions for this and can - with the correct policy of the communist party-go along paths with less difficulty and sacrifice " 13 . The book summarizes the results of research on the structure of the working class in developed capitalist countries, in particular, analyzes the role of "professionals" - highly qualified workers and some engineering and technical workers. 14 It is interesting to attempt a socio-psychological characterization of the modern working class and its individual groups. The authors analyze Lenin's methodology for studying socio-psychological processes, emphasizing the dialectical connection between the spontaneously developing psychology of the masses and the ideology introduced from outside, 15 and on this basis show the inconsistency of the ideas about the corruption of the entire working class by "consumer" psychology. An analysis of changes in the objective environment and their impact on the values, stereotypes, and spiritual interests of the masses leads the authors to conclude that "the current stage of the economic struggle creates significant socio-psychological prerequisites for the involvement of broad masses of working people in the movement for radical social transformation"16 . In the study of the socio - psychological factors of mass movements and, first of all, the proletarian movement, it is necessary, as experience shows, to turn more to sources - materials of sociological research, mass media (including letters to editorial offices), minutes of meetings of various workers ' organizations (including educational, cultural, sports), etc.

Of great importance for research on modern history is the collective work prepared by the Department of History of the International Communist and Labor Movement of the AON under the Central Committee of the CPSU, "The main stages of the development of the world revolutionary process after October" (Moscow, 1968), which reveals the complexity of the world revolutionary process, the uneven development of its various detachments, their victories and temporary retreats. At the same time, the paper shows the objective difficulties in understanding the laws of the revolutionary struggle, in developing strategies and tactics, which the communist movement faced at every turn of history and which it overcame, guided by the Marxist-Leninist doctrine, creatively developing it.

Major generalizing works include the monograph "The World Socialist System of Economy", prepared by the Institute of Economics of the World Socialist System of the USSR Academy of Sciences, as well as the following works:

12 These problems also occupied a significant place in the monograph "The Communist International (A Brief Historical Sketch)", Moscow, 1969; see also the collection "From the History of the Comintern", Moscow, 1970; Yu.L. Molchanov. Comintern: u istokov politiki edinogo proletarskogo fronta [Comintern: at the origins of the United Proletarian Front's policy].

13 "Leninism and the World Revolutionary Labor Movement", p. 310.

14 For details of their place in the modern revolutionary process, see the collection Problems of the Working-Class Movement.

15 "Leninism and the World revolutionary Labor Movement", pp. 340-357, 490-502.

16 Ibid., p. 348.

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R. A. Galetskoy, S. I. Pomazanova, Yu. N. Belyaeva 17 . The authors of these historical and economic works analyze factual material both for individual socialist countries and for the entire socialist community, summarize the vast experience of economic construction and, in particular, economic cooperation between socialist countries. It is worth noting that the study of the problems of the economic history of foreign countries in the XIX-early XX centuries in recent years is not so effective and they require more attention.

In general, the collective works discussed above represent a significant scientific achievement. Generalization of synchronously occurring processes (combined with diachronic analysis), promotion of a number of new problems and aspects of research, broad involvement of data from related sciences - this, in our opinion, is the most fruitful way of further growth of our science, corresponding to the tasks set by the XXIII Party Congress and the resolution of the CPSU Central Committee " On measures for the further development of social Sciences and increase their role in communist construction." It is gratifying that this trend, so clearly manifested in a number of works on modern history, is beginning to make its way in the study of modern history. The "synchronic (horizontal) cross-section" of historical situations is interesting and fruitful, especially since its effectiveness in historical and sociological terms has already been tested, in particular, by the works on modern history discussed above. In our opinion, it should be borne in mind that the analysis of "horizontal cross - sections" requires a broad and diverse concrete historical research involving new sources and the development of special techniques. Synchronic studies do not oppose diachronic ones, but complement them. At the same time, it should be noted that it is impossible to understand this "synchronic cross-section" without studying its historical origins, since its components will not be taken into account. Failure to study the genesis of the situation as a whole and its components in a diachronic way would violate the principle of historicism and make synchronous research itself fruitless. Continuing the development of methodological issues of" synchronic history", one or several studies of this type should be organized, for example, in the 60s of the XIX century - the period of the apotheosis of "free" capitalism, with such turbulent processes as the civil war in the United States, bourgeois reforms in Russia, national unification wars in Europe, peasant wars in Asia, the bourgeois revolution in Japan and, above all, the activities of the First International. The initial period of imperialism - 1900-1914 - could also be of considerable interest in this respect.

A prominent place in the research created by Soviet historians of modern times is occupied by works devoted to the bourgeois revolutions of the XVII-XVIII centuries. The focus was on the masses of the people, their movements, and their role in eliminating the feudal socio-economic formation. The monographs of M. A. Barg and Yu. M. Saprykin are devoted to the movements of the lower classes of the people during the English bourgeois Revolution 18 . M. A. Barg's work examines the role of the movement of the poorest peasantry in the bourgeois revolution as the peak of the democratic stage of the revolution. The main attention is paid by the author to ideology and

17 "The world socialist system of economy". Tt. 1-4. Moscow, 1966-1967; R. A. Galetskaya. Industrializatsiya i porotsii narodnogo khozyaistva sotsialisticheskikh stran [Industrialization and Proportions of the national economy of socialist countries]. Comprehensive development of the national economy in the countries of socialism. L. 1966; Yu. N. Belyaev. Convergence of levels of economic development of socialist countries, Moscow, 1967.

18 M. A. Barg. The lower classes of the people in the English Revolution of the 17th century. Movement and ideology of "true Levellers", Moscow, 1967; Yu. M. Saprykin. The Irish Uprising of the 17th century, Moscow, 1967.

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mass psychology of the lower classes of the people, which was given a more or less complete form by D. Winstanley and other ideologists of primitive communism and egalitarianism; its socio-political background, genetic connection with previously established theories, and reflection of the values, hopes, and ideals that exist in the mass itself are studied. Yu. M. Saprykin's research focuses on the initial period of the uprising of the Irish people, which unfolded during the English bourgeois Revolution. The rural poor, along with the urban plebeian class, provided the social base and breeding ground for communist ideas during the French Revolution. This is shown in detail in the work of A. R. Ioannisyan 19 , which significantly expands the circle of ideologists and propagandists of radical egalitarianism and primitive communism known to us. There is a prospect of a generalizing comparative-historical study of the patterns of development of the revolutionary ideology of the masses in the era of bourgeois revolutions.

In recent years, the Soviet historiography of modern and contemporary history has been enriched by significant research both on the range of problems that have always been in the center of its attention, and on topics that were poorly developed in previous years. Most of the papers clearly show a desire for broad synthetic generalizations. This is reflected primarily in research on the history of the communist and labor movements. The series of works is devoted to the history of Marxism-Leninism, the revolutionary activities of its founders, the international organizations they lead, and the ideological struggle against the opponents of scientific communism and its falsifiers. In addition to detailed, strictly scientific biographies of Karl Marx and Fr. We now have special research on almost all stages of the activity of the founders of scientific communism. The formation of the views of the young Karl Marx was studied by N. I. Lapin. M. Y. Mikhailov completed his long-term work on the history of the Union of Communists. The author paid special attention to the development of K. Marx and F. Engels ' theoretical and tactical principles of the party of the working class, the formation of cadres of the international working-class movement. A particularly difficult period in Karl Marx's life-the 1950s and early 60s of the nineteenth century - the period of the decline of the revolutionary wave and the temporary victory of reaction-has been studied less than any other. Now this gap is filled by L. I. Golman's monograph. Karl Marx's work in leading the First International was thoroughly covered in a two - volume work published in 1964-1965, and in 1968 the third volume of historiography was published - an acute polemic against the bourgeois and reformist interpretation of the history of the International Workers ' Association .21 Only the last decade of K - Marx's life has not been subjected to special research, although some aspects of this topic are covered in works describing certain aspects of his multifaceted activities22, as well as in B. G. Tartakovsky's monograph on the last period of F. K.'s life. Engels 23 . Covering the gigantic work of F. Engels ' Guide to International Relations-

19 A. R. Ioannisyan. Communist Ideas in the Years of the Great French Revolution, Moscow, 1966; see also G. S. Kucherenko. The fate of the" Testament " of Jean Mellier in the XVIII century. Moscow, 1968.

20 " Karl Marx. Biography", Moscow, 1968; " Friedrich Engels. Biografiya [Biography], Moscow, 1970.

21 N. I. Lapin. Young Marx, Moscow, 1968; M. I. Mikhailov. History of the Union of Communists, Moscow, 1968; "First International". Tt. I-II. Moscow, 1964-1965; "The First International in historical Science", Moscow, 1968; L. I. Golman. From the Union of Communists to the First International. (K. Marx's activity in 1852-1864), Moscow, 1970.

22 See V. E. Kunin. Karl Marx and the English Labor Movement (1845-1883), Moscow, 1968.

23 B. G. Tartakovsky. Friedrich Engels-adviser and teacher of the international Proletariat (1875-1895). Moscow, 1966.

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Both during the lifetime of Karl Marx and after his death, the author pays much attention to the struggle of the Communist Party and the international labor movement. Engels against the emerging opportunism in the Second International.

The original aspect of studying the history of Marxism was chosen by the authors of the study on the role of "Capital" in the establishment of Marxism in the labor movement of various countries, in the creation of workers ' parties .24 New data on the propaganda of" Capital", established from archives and published sources, a detailed analysis of the ideological struggle with the revisionists on the fundamental problems of political economy, the role of V. I. Lenin in defending and developing the main ideas of the most important work of Karl Marx, the exposure of modern bourgeois critics of "Capital" - all this enriches our knowledge of the history of Marxist thought. A new work by L. A. Leontiev is also devoted to the historical role of "Capital" and the significance of its ideas for the analysis of the economy of modern capitalism .25
Among the works on the activities of V. I. Lenin in the international labor movement, a monograph prepared by a team of authors under the supervision of L. A. Slepov stands out .26 For the first time, it traces the struggle of V. I. Lenin and the Bolshevik Party in the international arena throughout the revolutionary activity of V. I. Lenin from the 90s of the XIX century to the end of his life. Summarizing the results obtained by researchers of individual stages and aspects of this struggle, introducing new documents into circulation, the authors showed how the international significance of Leninism and the Russian labor movement gradually increased. The monograph examines the development of V. I. Lenin's views on the problems of the revolutionary process, strategies and tactics of working class parties. In recent years, Lenin's activities in the international arena during the First World War and the problem of the united front in the Comintern have been studied in detail. Materials of a concrete historical nature on the publication of Lenin's works abroad, on his contacts with left-wing social-democratic figures in various countries, on the struggle against right-wing opportunism and "left" sectarianism, especially during the preparation for the creation of the Comintern and in the first years of its existence - a serious contribution to scientific Leninism and to the historiography of the worker traffic 27 .

. These works are directly related to the volume of the collective work "History of the Second International" 28 . In addition to the special chapters and sections devoted to the international significance of Bolshevism and V. I. Lenin's struggle against opportunism and for rallying the revolutionary forces, these questions occupy a significant place both in the consideration of the work of the International congresses and in chapters on the history of the working-class movement in individual countries. This work is actually the first scientific monograph covering the entire history of the international labor movement of 1900-1917. The elaboration on a broad documentary basis of the question of the gradual opportunist degeneration of the Second International and its collapse in 1914 is of particular relevance, especially since bourgeois and reformist historians are still trying to deny this fact, as evidenced, in particular, by the speeches of Western historians (f. Venturi,

24 "Essays on the History of the Ideological Struggle around K. Marx's Capital, 1867-1967", Moscow, 1968.

25 L. A. Leontiev. "Capital" by K. Marx and the modern Era, Moscow, 1968.

26 "Lenin and the International Labor Movement", Moscow, 1969.

27 See Ya. A. Elfond. Lenin's development of united front tactics. Saratov, 1967; Yu. L. Molchanov, I. M. Krivoguz. Lenin and the Struggle for the Unity of the Working-class Movement, Moscow, 1967 (second edition-Moscow, 1969); N. E. Korolev. Lenin and the International Labor Movement. 1914-1918. Moscow, 1968; Ya. G. Temkin. Lenin and International Social Democracy. 1914-1917. Moscow, 1968; "V. I. Lenin and the Struggle for the Revolutionary International", Moscow, 1970.

28 "History of the Second International", Moscow, 1966

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L. Valiani) at the XIII International Congress of Historical Sciences 29 . Among the works that deal with the history of the international labor movement, we also note studies that are interesting in new aspects that have not previously attracted the attention of scientists. These are the works of V. V. Privalov on KIM's education, M. V. Andreev on the role of Catholicism in modern conditions, and E. P. Pletnev on the world economy and the working class, as well as an interesting collective work on the struggle of the working class of capitalist countries for democratic control over production .30
Turning to studies of the history of the working-class movement in individual countries, we have to note a certain decline in interest in its early stages .31 For example, the origins of the French labor movement, the early history of syndicates, and the Blanquist societies of the 1930s are poorly studied. For a long time there were no special works on the Luddist movement, on the struggle for parliamentary reform in 1832 in England, on the German workers ' organizations of the 1850s and 1860s. Meanwhile, in the context of the rapid formation of new detachments of the working class in underdeveloped countries and the replenishment of the ranks of the working class in capitalist countries by natives of the petty bourgeoisie, a well-reasoned Marxist-Leninist analysis of the early and still immature forms of class struggle of the proletariat, the process of its liberation from bourgeois and petty-bourgeois influences, is by no means only of academic interest. On the other hand, it is impossible not to notice that the study of certain stages in the history of the twentieth-century labor movement clearly shows parallelism. The works of N. E. Korolev and Ya. G. Temkin mentioned above, as well as the books by P. V. Gurovich and N. F. Mochulsky on the English labor movement of the 1930s, were published almost simultaneously .32 Although each of them individually is the result of many years of fruitful work and represents a serious contribution to the study of the relevant problem, neither the nature of the sources, nor the aspect of research, nor the facts presented and scientific conclusions do not differ significantly in anything. Apparently, there are some shortcomings in the planning of research and scientific information. To eliminate unnecessary duplication, clearer information is needed at an early stage of work. It is necessary to establish effective ethical personal communication of scientists working in the same or related fields. For this purpose, it is advisable to periodically convene thematic and problem-based symposia (for example, on the history of the English labor movement). Of course, the tasks of such conferences will not be limited only to mutual information.

A large number of works were created on the history of the German labor movement. Among them, it is necessary to mention the study of the internal struggle in German social democracy after the abolition of the" exclusive law", which was conducted by N. E. Ovcharenko, Ya. S. Drabkin's monograph on the November Revolution in Germany, G. M. Trukhnov's monograph on the history of the Russian Revolution.

29 For the attempts of some foreign scientists at the XIII International Congress of Historical Sciences to deny the collapse of the Second International, see A. L. Narochnitsky. To the results of the XIII International Congress of Historical Sciences. "New and recent History", 1970, N 6.

30 E. P. Pletnev. Mirovoe khozyaistvo i rabochy klass [World Economy and the Working Class]. Moscow, 1967; V. V. Privalov. Education of the Communist International of Youth, L. 1968; M. V. Andreev. Catholicism and Problems of the modern worker and National liberation movement, Moscow, 1968; "Movement of Workers of capitalist countries of Western Europe for Democratic Control over Production", Moscow, 1970.

31 The only exception is I. V. Grigorieva's study "The Workers' and Socialist Movement in Italy in the era of the First International" (Moscow, 1966).

32 P. V. Gurovich. English Labor Movement on the eve of the Second World War, Moscow, 1967; N. F. Mochulsky. The labour movement in England on the eve of the Second World War (1934-1939). Moscow, 1968.

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The class struggle in Germany in 1922-1923 33. Until recently, there was no comprehensive work on the history of the working-class movement in West Germany. With the publication of V. D. Ezhov's monograph 34, the reader has received a systematic and well-documented analysis of both the mass labor movement and the heroic activities of the KKE.

The historiography of the English labor movement has been enriched by the work of Y. P. Mador, the above-mentioned books by P. V. Gurovich and N. F. Mochulsky, V. P. Zaitsev's monograph on the labor movement of the 50s-60s, and a collection of works by Perm historians on the history of the struggle of trends in the Labor Party .35 The article examines one of the most important aspects of the struggle of the working class in recent years: its actions in defense of peace, cooperation with socialist countries, and the struggle for disarmament. A new work by I. I. Zhigalov, who also published monographs and articles on these topics in previous years, as well as monographs by A. N. Krasilnikov and S. P. Peregudov, is devoted to these problems. 36 The study of the French labor movement in recent years has focused almost exclusively on the period of recent history. Soviet historiography has been supplemented with generalizing work dealing with many poorly studied issues in the half-century history of the working-class movement in France. 37
Works on the history of the Italian labor movement, with the exception of the above-mentioned book by I. V. Grigorieva, are also mainly devoted to the period of modern history. However, K. E. Kirova's research shows the impact of the revolutionary events in Russia between February and October on the Italian working class. The next stage - the revolutionary upsurge after the October Revolution - was investigated by K. V. Kobylyansky. The period of sharp aggravation of the class struggle in the late 50s-early 60s was studied by K. G. Kholodkovsky. The author managed to show the complexity of the situation and the nature of the new demands and new forms of struggle of the Italian working class38 .

Serious works have been created on the history of the US labor movement in recent times, especially in the post-war period. Great work of the corresponding member. T. T. Timofeyev of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR analyzes both the situation of the working class and its struggle against monopolies, as well as the struggle of trends within the working-class movement and the difficulties of developing the communist movement. On the interwar period, the book of A.V. Berezmin deserves to be noted, in which a significant place is occupied by Ude-

33 N. E. Ovcharenko. In the struggle for revolutionary Marxism. Problemy teorii, taktiki i organizatsii germanskoi sotsial ' -demokratii v kontse XIX veka [Problems of Theory, tactics and organization of German Social Democracy in the late 19th century]. November Revolution in Germany, Moscow, 1967; N. V. Farbman. Great October and the struggle of the German working class for a democratic World (1917-1918). Saratov - Penza. 1967; G. M. Trukhnov. Class struggle in Germany in 1922-1923 Minsk. 1969.

34 V. D. Yezhov. The labor movement in West Germany. 1945-1968. Moscow, 1969; see also V. P. Jerusalem. Years of formation and struggle. Essay on the history of the Workers ' Movement in West Germany in 1946-1949, Moscow, 1970.

35 Yu. P. Mador. The Rise of the working-class movement in England in 1910-1913, Moscow, 1966; V. P. Zaitsev. The working Class of England in the Struggle against the Advance of Monopolies (1956-1966), Moscow, 1968; Voprosy istorii mezhdunarodnogo rabochego dvizhenii. Issue 6. The Labour Movement in England and the Dominions. "Scientific Notes" of the Perm State University named after A.M. Gorky, No. 153, 1968.

36 I. I. Zhigalov. Great Britain: People and Foreign Policy, Moscow, 1967; A. N. Krasilnikov. Foreign policy of England and the Labour Party (1951-1964). Moscow, 1968; S. P. Peregudov. The anti-war movement in England and the Labour Party (1957-1968). Moscow, 1969.

37 " Essays on the working-class movement in France. 1917-1967". Moscow, 1968.

38 K. E. Kirov. The Russian Revolution and Italy. March-October 1917, Moscow, 1968; K. V. Kobylyansky. Great October and the Revolutionary movement of the Soviet Union Italy (1917 - 1921). Moscow, 1968; K. G. Kholodkovsky. The Labor Movement in Italy (1959-1963). Moscow, 1969.

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It was written about the Leninist movement in 1918-1921, and D. G. Najafov - about the 30s. The poorly studied problems of immigration and its impact on the American labor movement during the XX century were studied by A. N. Shlepakov, who combined historical and sociological analysis, as well as used a variety of demographic material. V. P. Zolotukhin's research on the farm movement in the USA in the 1930s and 60s is closely connected with the history of the labor movement 39 .

In recent years, Soviet historians have done much to reduce the number of blank spots on the map of the world labor movement. We should mention S. P. Pozharskaya's work on the Spanish Socialist Labor Party in the 1930s, Yu. N. Pankov's monograph on the post-war labor movement in Belgium, and V. M. Kholodkovsky's monograph on the Finnish Revolution of 191840 .

In recent years, the study of the influence of the working class on the policies of bourgeois governments, parties, and groups has been widely developed. This topic is just beginning to be developed, but even now we can note certain results obtained by Soviet historians .41 The facts collected by them testify to the growing role of the working class in the political life of capitalist countries. At the same time, changes in the tactics of the ruling classes seeking to maintain their positions are being studied. Questions of political strategy and tactics of various groups of ruling classes in connection with the level and nature of the labor movement are considered in the works of I. A. Belyavskaya on the political and ideological struggle in the United States at the beginning of the XX century, V. L. Malkov, D. G. Najafov and N. V. Sivachev on the "new deal" of F. Roosevelt 42. Research of this type should be developed in every possible way in order to accumulate concrete historical material that will make it possible to draw political and sociological conclusions about the regularities of the tactics of the ruling classes in the modern era, which are important from the point of view of further development of the tactics of the communist parties in capitalist countries. The progress made in the study of the history of the foreign workers ' movement gives grounds to raise the question of some aspects that have hitherto not attracted the attention of historians, or have been touched upon only briefly. It is primarily a question of studying the mutual influence of the working-class movement in different countries. The influence of the Russian working-class movement on the processes that took place in the working-class movement in a number of countries has been thoroughly studied in this regard; there are works on the impact of the Paris Commune. But the whole complex process of mutual influence is still poorly understood. How much is known about the attitude towards Chartism in France, Germany, and the United States, and about the reaction to the June uprising of Parisian workers in 1848? How did the victories of the Popular Front in France affect the race-

39 A. N. Shlepakov. Immigration and the American Working Class in the Era of Imperialism, Moscow, 1966; T. T. Timofeev. Proletariat against monopolies. Essays on the problems of class struggle and general democratic movements in the USA, Moscow, 1967; A.V. Berezkin. The Great October Socialist Revolution and the USA, Moscow, 1968; V. P. Zolotukhin. Farmers and Washington, Moscow, 1968; D. G. Najafov. The people of the United States are against war and fascism. 1933-1939. Moscow, 1969.

40 Pozharskaya village. Socialist Workers ' Party of Spain. 1931-1939 Moscow, 1966; Yu. N. Pankov. The labour movement in Belgium. 1945-1965. Moscow, 1966; V. M. Kholodkovsky. The Revolution of 1918 in Finland and the German Intervention, Moscow, 1967.

41 S. N. Gurvich. Rabocheye dvizhenie i levy blok v Frantsii (1921-1926 gg.) [The Labor Movement and the Left Bloc in France (1921-1926)]. The Ruling Class and the Labour Movement in England (1959-1968). Kiev, 1968.

42 N. V. Sivachev. Political struggle in the USA in the mid-30s of the XX century M. 1966; V. L. Malkov and D. G. Najafov. America at the Crossroads (1929-1938). Essays on the socio-political history of the "new course" in the USA, Moscow, 1967; I. A. Belyavskaya. Bourgeois Reformism in the USA (1900-1914). Moscow, 1968.

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the formation of forces in the English labour movement? A study of these questions would contribute to a better understanding of the unity and interconnectedness of all the divisions of the international working class.

Works on the history of various organizations of the working class - co-operative, educational, etc. - have not yet been published. However, the importance of these organizations in the daily life of workers and in shaping their views, habits, and interests should not be underestimated. Of course, the main focus should still be on studying the mass movement, the history of parties and trade unions, but you should know everything about the working class - only in this case the analysis of its history will be truly comprehensive. And, of course, it is necessary to constantly take into account the socio-psychological aspect, including national characteristics. It seems that the time has come to begin preparing a major work on the history of the international working class from the formation of its first detachments to the present day. Such a study would be very useful not only for understanding the experience of the international labor movement, but also in the fight against slanderous attacks on the working class by right and "left" revisionists. In this multi-volume work, the diachronic principle would be combined with the synchronic one, as a result of which both the general laws of the labor movement and their specific manifestations in different countries and regions would be particularly clearly traced. At the same time, the whole variety of forms and methods of struggle of the working class, the unevenness of its development, and the great historical significance of the centers of the world revolutionary process at all stages of modern and contemporary history would be analyzed. It can be assumed that in the course of such a study, not only will the mechanism of operation of general laws be comprehensively traced, but new, as yet undiscovered patterns will also be discovered.

In recent years, numerous studies have been published on the history of fascism and its main varieties. The use of methods of sociological and socio-psychological analysis contributed to the improvement of the methodology of studying fascism and paved the way for the creation of synthetic works on this problem. A comprehensive analysis of the most monstrous - German - variety of fascism is given in A. A. Galkin's monograph 43 . The most important stage in the history of Italian fascism from its origin to the formation of the dictatorship was studied by B. R. Lopukhov, who considers the history of fascism in relation to the history of its antipode - the labor movement .44 The complex nature of the relationship between the socio-political function of fascism and the mass basis it mobilizes, the mechanism of the fascists ' influence on the masses are revealed by these authors in various aspects: socio-economic, political, ideological and socio-psychological.

In modern works on the history of fascism, the main focus is on identifying the specifics of the fascist form of state-monopoly capitalism. The structure of fascist regimes, the interaction of their various elements, the functioning of the mechanism of power - all these problems are posed and solved on the basis of a wide range of sources (including archival ones). The picture of the relationship between fascist parties and monopoly capital is reproduced in all its complexity and inconsistency. The fact that fascism was an instrument of large-scale monopolistic capital by no means excluded certain contradictions in the relations between the fascist elite and the monopolies, which depended on how successfully (from the latter's point of view) the fascist regimes fulfilled their internal political tasks.-

43 A. A. Galkin. German Fascism, Moscow, 1967.

44 B. R. Lopukhov. Fascism and the Labor movement in Italy 1919-1929. Moscow, 1968.

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political and foreign policy functions. In this regard, the work of G. S. Filatov is of interest 45 . Soviet historians study the relations of fascism with various factions of the ruling classes and their party and political representation. Based on Lenin's propositions about the struggle of various tactical groups in the ruling classes, L. I. Ginsberg analyzed the complex political game of the main factions in the ruling circles of Germany, which led to the establishment of the Hitlerite dictatorship. 46
Soviet historians ' research also covers other variants of fascism. In the framework of the Spanish history of the XX century, written by X. Garcia, reflect the peculiarities of fascism that arose in this country. Special works by N. I. Lebedev and A. I. Puskash are devoted to the Romanian and Hungarian varieties of fascism47 . These books enrich our understanding of fascism. Further work is needed to study different national variants of fascism. This task becomes essential because bourgeois historians try to contrast certain varieties of fascism as "true" and "truly revolutionary" with the most compromised forms of fascism: German and Italian. The results achieved so far make the task of creating a synthetic work on the history of Western European fascism quite realistic. When working on this topic, attention should be paid not only to fascism, which temporarily broke through to power, but also to those organizations that, without creating the appropriate regimes, nevertheless played the role of an active counterrevolutionary force (French fascist organizations, the British Union of Fascists, etc.). This last aspect is particularly important in exposing contemporary neo-fascist movements.

The study of international relations still occupies a significant place in the work of specialists in modern and contemporary history. The ongoing publication of documents from the Archive of Foreign Policy of Russia48 creates a solid source base for studying international relations at the beginning of the XIX century. It is not by chance that this period again - after a short break-became the object of research by a number of historians: V. G. Sirotkin on Russian-French relations and L. A. Zak on the Congress of Vienna. The same period is also included in N. N. Bolkhovitinov's monograph on Russian-American relations, which has a broader chronological framework. 49
Some aspects of international relations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the Middle East are studied by G. L. Bondarevsky. Historians are still attracted by the diplomatic background of the First World War: Z. P. Yakhimovich studied the Italo-Turkish war, K. B. Vinogradov and P. V. Zhogov studied the Balkan knot of international contradictions, and L. I. Zubok and R. M. Brodsky studied the expansionist policy of the United States. Russian-American relations during the First World War were analyzed by R. S. Ganelin. Monographs on various aspects of the aggressive foreign policy of capitalist countries over a long period of time are of interest. This is the work of E. L. Nitoburg on software-

45 G. S. Filatov. Mussolini's Eastern Campaign, Moscow, 1968.

46 L. I. Ginsberg. Shadow of the fascist swastika. How Hitler came to Power, Moscow, 1967.

47 H. Garcia. Spain of the XX century, Moscow, 1967; N. I. Lebedev. "The Iron Guard", Karol II and Hitler, Moscow, 1968; A. I. Pushkash. Hungary during the Second World War, Moscow, 1966.

48 " Foreign Policy of Russia in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Documents of the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs". Tt. IV-VII. M. 1966-1970.

49 V. G. Sirotkin. Duel of two diplomacy. Russia and France in 1801-1812 M. 1966; L. A. Zak. Monarchs versus nations. Diplomatic struggle on the ruins of the Napoleonic Empire, Moscow, 1966; N. N. Bolkhovitinov. Formation of Russian-American relations. 1775-1815. Moscow, 1966.

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US policy towards Cuba for a century and a half and E. B. Chernyak on the export of counter-revolution in modern and modern times 50 .

The study of the recent history of international relations and foreign policy of the USSR was conducted by a large team of Soviet historians. An important role was played by the publication "Documents of the Foreign Policy of the USSR". Among the works published on this subject, a special place is occupied by studies of V. I. Lenin's theoretical and practical activities in the field of international relations. Collections and collective monographs are devoted to Lenin's foreign policy and its principles: "Lenin's Foreign Policy of the Soviet country. 1917-1924" (M. 1969), " V. I. Lenin and Soviet Foreign Policy "(M. 1969), " History of the Foreign Policy of the USSR 1917-1966 "(H. I. M. 1966), as well as monographs by M. I. Trut, A. N. Heifetz, G. L. Nikolnikov, A. E. Ioffe and others.51 . Three monographs cover the foreign policy of the imperialist Powers in the interwar years. E. I. Popova studied the struggle on foreign policy issues in the United States between the Versailles and Washington Conferences, M. S. Voslensky studied American-German relations at the final stage of the First World War, and V. L. Israelyan and L. N. Kutakovich studied the policy of the German-Italian-Japanese bloc. 52 Their research leads directly to international relations during the Second World War.

The history of World War II occupies a prominent place in modern Soviet historiography. Suffice it to say that by 1965, over 10,000 books and journal articles on the history of the Great Patriotic War and World War II had been published in the Soviet Union .53 Serious generalizing studies have been published. Evidence of the multifaceted activities of Soviet scientists can be found in the materials of the scientific conference dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany .54 Many questions of the history of the Great Patriotic War and the Second World War were presented in a new light thanks to the appearance of memoirs of prominent Soviet military figures: G. K. Zhukov, I. S. Konev, K. K. Rokossovsky, K. A. Meretskov, I. H. Bagramyan, N. G. Kuznetsov, S. M. Shtemenko and others .55
50 K. B. Vinogradov. The main features of the policy of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. 1909-1913. Moscow, 1966; Z. P. Yakhimovich. Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912, Moscow, 1967; P. L. Bondarevsky. Englishskaya politika i mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya v bassein Persidskogo zalivogo (kontsa XIX-nachalokhkh c.) [English Politics and International Relations in the Persian Gulf basin (late 19th-early 20th centuries)]. Far Eastern policy of the United States on the eve of the First World War, Moscow, 1968; E. L. Nitoburg. Theft of the pearl. A century and a half of US expansionist policy in Cuba, Moscow, 1968; P. V. Zhogov. Diplomacy of Germany and Austria-Hungary and the first Balkan War of 1912-1913 M. 1969; L. I. Zubok. Expansionist policy of the USA at the beginning of the XX century. Moscow, 1969; R. S. Ganelin. Russia and the United States, 1914-1917 Essays on the History of Russian-American Relations, L. 1969; E. B. Chernyak. Gendarmes of History, Moscow, 1969.

51 A. E. Ioffe. Foreign policy of the Soviet Union. 1928-1932 Moscow, 1966; M. I. Trush. Foreign policy activity of V. I. Lenin. 1921 - 1923. Day by Day, Moscow, 1967; A. N. Kheifets. Soviet Diplomacy and the Peoples of the East (1921-1927). Moscow, 1968; G. L. Nikolnikov. An outstanding victory of Lenin's strategy. Brestsky mir: from conclusion to rupture, Moscow, 1968.

52 E. I. Popova. USA: struggle on Foreign Policy Issues 1919-1922, Moscow, 1966; V. L. Israelyan, L. N. Kutakov. Diplomacy of aggressors. German-Italian-Japanese fascist bloc. Istoriya ego voznozhdeniya i krakha [History of its origin and collapse]. Moscow, 1967; M. S. Voslensky. Secret relations between the USA and Germany (1917-1919). Moscow, 1968.

53 "The Second World War". The first book. General problems, Moscow, 1966, p. 14.

54 "The Second World War". Proceedings of the scientific conference dedicated to the 20th anniversary of the Victory over Nazi Germany (in three books), Moscow, 1966. In May 1970, a scientific conference dedicated to the 25th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany in the Great Patriotic War was held in Moscow.

55 K. K. Rokossovsky. Soldatskiy dolg [Soldier's Duty], Moscow, 1968; K. A. Meretskov. In the Service of the people, Moscow, 1968; S. M. Shtemenko. General Staff during the War, Moscow, 1968; G. K. Zhukov. Memoirs;and reflections. Moscow, 1969; N. G. Kuznetsov. Moscow, 1969; I. H. Baghramyan. So the war began. M. 1971.

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In the Soviet historiography of the Second World War, certain scientific traditions and research directions were formed. Over the past five years, an in-depth analysis of the military, diplomatic and economic aspects of World War II, as well as the anti-fascist Resistance movement, has continued. Soviet historians continued to pay special attention to the study of fascist aggression against the Soviet Union and the peoples of other countries, and adventurism in the strategy of the military leadership of the third Reich .56 A notable event was the collective monographs on the history of the war at sea, which show the scale, forms and methods of the grandiose battle between the fleets of the anti-Hitler coalition and the fascist bloc states in the vast expanses of the Mediterranean Sea, the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean. 57 V. A. Sekistov's book, which analyzes the relationship between military strategy and the policies of Western powers throughout the entire period of World War II, is of a generalizing nature .58 The author reveals the essence of the notorious "peripheral" strategy of the Western powers, as well as the political, economic and social factors that influenced its formation.

We can also note the increased interest of Soviet scientists in analyzing inter-imperialist relations within the framework of coalitions. Anglo-American relations of 1941-1945 are considered in the monograph by L. V. Pozdeyeva 59 . Drawing on a wide range of sources, V. L. Israelyan and L. N. Kutakov in the above-mentioned book show the specifics of relations between the states of the fascist bloc, the gangster methods of their diplomacy. Soviet historians continue to study the regional nodes of inter-imperialist contradictions during the Second World War. This problem is considered in the monograph by G. N. Sevostyanov devoted to the diplomatic history of the war in the Pacific basin. V. B. Vorontsov studies specifically the Pacific policy of the United States 60 ; N. D. Smirnova analyzes the complex complex of contradictions in the Balkans in connection with the aggressive policy of Italy 61. A characteristic feature of modern works on the diplomatic history of the Second World War is a significant expansion of the documentary base, the use of Soviet and foreign archival funds.

Problems of the history of the anti-fascist resistance movement during the Second World War occupied a prominent place in research on individual countries, as well as in special works .62
The experience of studying the history of individual countries during the war is of particular interest for creating a synthetic history of the Second World War, which would show the relationship between military, foreign and domestic political aspects. Existing works and studies that have not yet been completed on various issues.

56 P. A. Zhilin. How Fascist Germany prepared an attack on the Soviet Union (calculations and miscalculations). M. 1966; D. M. Proektor. Aggression and Catastrophe, Moscow, 1968.

57 "Blockade and Counterblockade", Moscow, 1967; V. A. Belli, K. V. Penzin. Fighting in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. 1939-1945. Moscow, 1967.

58 V. A. Sekistov. Voina i politika [War and Politics], Moscow, 1970.

59 L. V. Pozdeyeva. Anglo-American relations during the Second World War. 1941-1945. Moscow, 1969.

60 G. N. Sevostyanov. Diplomatic history of the Pacific War. From Pearl Harbor to Cairo, Moscow, 1969; V. B. Vorontsov. Pacific Policy of the USA 1941-1950. Moscow, 1967.

61 N. D. Smirnova. The Balkan policy of fascist Italy. Essays on Diplomatic History (1936-1941), Moscow, 1969.

62 G. D. Kiriakidis. Greece in the Second World War, Moscow, 1967; A. S. Kan. Foreign policy of the Scandinavian countries during the Second World War, Moscow, 1967; A. Blank, B. Levelj. Our goal is a free Germany. From the history of the antifascist movement "Free Germany" (1943-1944). Moscow, 1967; E. A. Brodsky. In the name of victory over fascism. Anti-fascist struggle of Soviet people in Hitlerite Germany (1941-1945). M. 1970; M. I. Semiryaga. Soviet People in European Resistance, Moscow, 1970.

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world Wars can serve as a solid base for such a fundamental pond, the need for which is felt quite acutely.

The study of modern international relations is conducted on a broad front, covering key and specific issues of a wide range of issues. The gradual acceleration of the pace of historical development, the changes in the balance of forces between the opposing social systems, the deepening of the uneven economic and political development of the imperialist countries, and the inclusion of numerous new actors in international life - all this gives modern international relations an extraordinary dynamism. The content of international relations has also been significantly enriched, as along with traditional diplomatic and economic aspects, scientific, technical, cultural, ideological aspects, as well as contacts and connections at the non-governmental level have become important. Expanding and enriching the content of international relations requires the cooperation of historians, economists, philosophers and other specialists, as well as mastering the methodology and research skills of related disciplines by international specialists.

Soviet historians of international relations focus on the struggle between opposing social systems and the growing influence of the USSR and the world socialist system on various issues of international politics .63 The new type of international relations that has developed in the socialist system is being studied both in general and within the framework of bilateral cooperation of individual socialist states. 64 This type of relationship is constantly evolving, and everyday practice enriches it with new elements. In this connection, the importance of the work of international historians on these problems increases, especially since the political relations between socialist states are less studied than the economic ones.

In the analysis of inter-imperialist relations, Soviet historians proceed from Lenin's thesis about two tendencies, unifying and separating, which determine the relations of imperialist states, various regroupings within the imperialist camp, and the specifics of alliances and conflicts. A number of works are devoted to the main line of modern inter-imperialist contradictions: USA - Western Europe 65 . Relations within military-political blocs, as well as between individual states, are considered from the point of view of the interaction of these two trends .66
US hegemony in the imperialist camp, the leading role of the American ruling circles in the development of foreign policy and military policy of the United States.-

63 A. A. Galkin, D. E. Melnikov. USSR, Western Powers and the German question (1945-1965). Moscow, 1966; "History of International Relations and Foreign Policy of the USSR", vol. 3. 1945-1967. Moscow, 1967; P. A. Nikolaev. The policy of the Soviet Union in the German question. 1945-1954. Moscow, 1966; "The Soviet Union and the United Nations Organization", Vol. 3. 1961-1965. Moscow, 1968; I. I. Orlik. Imperialist Powers and Eastern Europe (1945-1965). Moscow, 1968; A. S. Protopopov. The Soviet Union and the Suez crisis of 1956 (July-November), Moscow, 1969; "Modern Problems of Disarmament", Moscow, 1970; V. M. Khaytsman. The USSR and the problem of disarmament. History of International negotiations 1945-1959. Moscow, 1970.

64 See Sh. P. Sanakoev. The world system of Socialism, Moscow, 1968.

65 A. V. Kirsanov. USA and Western Europe. Economic relations after the Second World War, Moscow, 1967; " Western Europe and the USA. Essay on political Relations", Moscow, 1968, et al.

66 M. V. Senin. Nemtsy i Evropa [Germans and Europe], Moscow, 1968; N. S. Biryukov. Bridge across the Rhine? Moscow, 1968; G. M. Akopov, I. A. Sukharkov. Imperialist Blocks: Reality and Prospects, Moscow, 1969; V. B. Kiyazhinsky. Political strategy of anti-communism. - Essay on the history of the imperialist policy of "European integration", Moscow, 1969; N.: N. Sofinsky. Bonn and Washington. Diplomatic History of the Remilitarization of Western Germany, Moscow, 1969; Economic Groupings in Western Europe, Moscow, 1969.

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Naturally, the new strategies of imperialism predestined special attention to the study of various aspects of the country's foreign policy .67 Various aspects of West German foreign policy and the role of the Federal Republic of Germany in military-political and economic blocs were also covered in Soviet historical literature. 68 Interesting papers published on the foreign policy of England 69 . A collective work is of a generalizing nature, which analyzes the principles, methods ,and organizational structure of diplomacy in the largest imperialist countries of the world.

At the same time, there are a number of issues that need careful and in-depth study. How did the loss of previous positions affect the foreign policy of France and England? What are the features of their current politics? How has the role of small countries changed on the world stage? There is a need for a special study of the impact of the world socialist system on inter-imperialist relations. Over the past years, some new trends and trends have emerged in the study of the diverse complex of international relations. The history and theory of international organizations is formed into an independent branch of research 71 . An important place in the complex of works on international relations is occupied by the study of the ideological struggle in the international arena. To a greater or lesser extent, issues of ideological struggle are addressed in most of the above-mentioned works on the history of international relations. However, this subject is so complex and so related to a specific type of source that special research was required. The organizational structure of the propaganda service of imperialist states and its methods are shown in the monographs of G. A. Arbatov and V. N. Kelin. 72 However, G. A. Arbatov's book goes beyond the scope of this problem. The author examines the nature of propaganda maneuvers of the imperialist powers in organic connection with the struggle of various factions of the ruling classes, convincingly showing how political tactics are reflected in the types of propaganda doctrines. The material accumulated in the course of a specific study of international relations creates a factual basis for solving one of the most important problems from the point of view of theory and practice, which consists in developing a comprehensive theory of international relations.

The current stage of Soviet historiography is characterized by a tendency to create generalizing works on the history of individual countries. Tru-

67 See V. S. Zorin. The Uncrowned Kings of America, Moscow, 1970; A. A. Fursenko. The Rockefeller Dynasty, Moscow-L. 1967; A. N. Yakovlev. Ideology of the American "Empire", Moscow, 1967; A. I. Poltorak, L. I. Savinsky. Criminal war. US Aggression against Vietnam, Moscow, 1968; Trofimenko G. A. Global War Strategy, Moscow, 1968; Vorontsov V. B. (in Russian). Idols without embellishment. D. McCarthy and the Far Eastern policy of the United States. M. 1968; Anatoly Gromyko. 1036 days of President Kennedy. M. 1968; V. M. Kulagin. "Realism" against Communism, Moscow, 1970; Yu. M. Melnikov. Foreign Policy doctrines of the USA, Moscow, 1970; V. M. Kulakov. Ideology of Aggression, Moscow, 1970.

68 V. I. Milyukova. Revenge diplomacy. (Foreign Policy of the Federal Republic of Germany in Europe), Moscow, 1966; N. V. Volkov, L, P. Makarov. Udarnaya sila NATO v Evrope [NATO Strike Force in Europe]. Moscow, 1967; M. S. Voslensky. "Vostochnaya" politika FRG. 1949-1966. Moscow, 1967; A. F. Zaletny. Militarization of the Federal Republic of Germany, Moscow, 1969; N. Nikolaev. Atomic Rate of Bonn, Moscow, 1969.

69 R. S. Ovinnikov. The masters of English politics. Financial oligarchy and British foreign policy after Suez. 1957-1966. Moscow, 1966; "Politics of England in the Middle East 1945 - 1965". Moscow, 1966; "Politics of England in the countries of South and South-East Asia". Moscow, 1966; "Politics of England in Africa". Moscow, 1967; L. V. Valkova. British colonial policy in Aden and the Aden Protectorate (1945-1967). Moscow, 1968.

70 "Diplomacy of Modern Imperialism", Moscow, 1969.

71 G. I. Morozov. International organizations. Nekotorye voprosy teorii [Some Questions of Theory], Moscow, 1969; "UN: results, Trends, Prospects". Moscow, 1970.

72 V. N. Kelin. Foreign Policy and Ideology, Moscow, 1969; G. A. Arbatov. Ideological Struggle in Modern International Relations, Moscow, 1970.

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Works on the history of Italy, Germany, Chile, England, Spain, France, and Hungary 73 help to develop a holistic Marxist-Leninist concept of the history of these countries, and help to identify poorly studied periods or problems. In a holistic presentation of the history of each country, it becomes necessary to show the interaction of all sides of the historical process, all forms of class struggle (economic, political, ideological). This raises the question of the need to overcome the lag in the field of historical and cultural research, which is particularly noticeable in the field of modern and contemporary history. In some works of this type, sections on the history of culture have appeared, which should be welcomed. However, in almost all of these books, culture does not yet appear as an organic, integral part of the historical process, not only experiencing the impact of economics and politics, but also exerting a reverse influence on them.

Actually, the state of the spiritual life of society, the value orientations of both the oppressed and the ruling classes, which are formed under the significant influence of not only political theories, but also philosophy, art, literature, the content of school and university education, etc., are very poorly taken into account in our monographic literature. The reason for this lies primarily in the insufficient development of some methodological issues of historical and cultural research. Perhaps the most important of them is the question of the criteria that can guide a scientist in assessing the class nature of certain phenomena of spiritual life, especially in certain areas of art. Equally important are questions about the uneven development of its various aspects, the elements of democratic and socialist culture in bourgeois society, and the role of the masses of the people in spiritual production. Along with special methodological studies, works of a specific historical nature are required. For modern and especially recent history, a major topic deserves special attention - the working class and the development of elements of democratic and socialist culture in the capitalist countries. It includes the struggle of the working class for the democratization of culture (in particular education) and the complex process of expanding the positions of Marxism-Leninism and socialist realism in the general complex of national culture of a particular country. This theme also includes the struggle of the working class under the leadership of the Communist parties against the dehumanizing tendencies of reactionary bourgeois culture. Finally, the influence of the prevailing socialist culture in the countries of socialism on the processes taking place in the spiritual life of the capitalist world is of paramount importance.

The publication of German and French yearbooks, as well as Scandinavian collections, contributes to the study of the history of individual countries. The newly created journal of US history also plays a stimulating role.

The genre of historical biography was further developed, which is valuable not only in terms of its popularity among wide circles of readers, but also in terms of studying the influence of historical figures on the course of the historical process, studying the social and individual psychology of representatives of the working and ruling classes, and problems of strategy and tactics in the domestic and international arena. The works published during these years contain portraits of prominent figures of the communist and labor movement in foreign countries: E. Thelma-

73 Yu. V. Borisov. Modern history of France 1917-1964. M. 1966; "Essays on the history of Chile". M. 1967; H. Garcia. Spain of the XX century. Moscow, 1967; L. E. Kertman. Geografiya, istoriya i kul'tura Anglii [Geography, History and Culture of England]. Moscow, 1968; L. N. Nezhinsky. Essay on the history of people's Hungary (1948-1962). M. 1969; "History of Italy". T. I. M. 1970; "German history in modern and modern times". Tt. I-II. Moscow, 1970.

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na, A. Gramsci, W. Liebknecht, J. Jaures, W. Dubois, M. Cachin, M. Thorez, In: Roche 74 . One can only wish that in the future the authors of such works would not be limited, as is often the case, only to the social activities of their characters, but also show their personal life, relationships with friends and family members. The same applies to the biographies of bourgeois statesmen. Biographies of F. Roosevelt, W. Churchill, D. Lloyd George 75, written on the basis of many sources, enrich our understanding not only of these political leaders of the bourgeoisie, but also of the complex mechanism of making political decisions, developing and implementing a particular tactical line. This genre of historical writings will never become obsolete; continuing the series of biographies that we have started, we should also think about a new series, for example, about heroic resistance fighters, about the associates of Karl Marx and Franz Liszt. Engels on the International, as well as on prominent statesmen of the past (Gladstone, Disraeli, Clemenceau, Wilson, etc.). The publication of the collected works of famous Soviet historians should be welcomed. The newly reviewed and sometimes revised research carried out over several decades is now presented to readers as a series of thematically related works. Books published in recent years by corresponding members. A.V. Efimov, as well as A. Z. Manfred, and V. M. Dalin 76 cover phenomena of various significance and scale. A.V. Efimov's work develops a holistic Marxist-Leninist concept of the history of the United States up to the end of the 19th century. A. Z. Manfred examines the most important stages and manifestations of cooperation between Russia and France. V. M. Dalin collected his works on the history of the revolutionary movement in France. One characteristic of all these books is that, in addition to their direct purpose, they are very valuable from the point of view of studying the work of these Soviet historians.

A significant shift has also taken place in recent years in the field of historiography of modern and contemporary history. The increasing importance of this area of historical science is due both to the intensification of the ideological struggle and to the very logic of the development of science. In the conditions of specialization and differentiation that are unavoidable at the current stage of knowledge development, historiographic research performs an important integrating function, helping to orient historians and identify the most important trends in the progress of science. An important contribution to the Marxist-Leninist historical science was the collective work on the historiography of modern and contemporary times, which provides a systematic analysis of the evolution of historical thought in the countries of the European continent and America .77 When creating this work, the authors could not always rely on monographic research. "The study of the history of historical science of modern and especially modern times was sometimes not given due attention. As a result, the editorial board has had to follow an untrodden path in many cases, including:-

74 D. S. Davidovich. Ernst Thelmann. Pages of Life and Struggle, Moscow, 1968; A. S. Golemba. Gramsci, M. 1968; V. V. Chubinsky-Nadezhdin, V. Libknecht-soldat revolyutsii, M. 1968; R. F. Ivanov. Dubois, Moscow, 1968; V. N. Sedykh. Heirs of the Commune (Marcel Cachin, Maurice Thorez, Waldeck Roche), Moscow, 1968; N. N. Molchanov. Zhores, Moscow, 1969.

75 V. G. Trukhanovsky. Winston Churchill. Politicheskaya biografiya [Political biography], Moscow, 1968; N. N. Yakovlev. Franklin Roosevelt. Man and Politician, Moscow, 1969; K. B. Vinogradov. David Lloyd George, Moscow 1970.

76 A. Z. Manfred. Traditions of friendship and cooperation. From the History of Russian-French and Soviet-French Relations, Moscow, 1967; A.V. Efimov, USA. Puti razvitiya kapitalizma (doimperialisticheskaya epokha) [Ways of development of capitalism (pre-imperialist era)]. People and ideas. From the history of the Revolutionary and Socialist Movement in France, Moscow, 1970.

77 "Historiography of the New Time of the countries of Europe and America", Moscow, 1967; "Historiography of the new and modern history of the countries of Europe and America", Moscow, 1968.

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to some extent outstripping the development of this branch of science. This gives an impetus to more intensive development of its problems. " 78 With the appearance of a generalizing work on the historiography of modern and contemporary times, the foundation was laid for the university course of historiography,which significantly improves the quality of training of historians. The success of Marxist historiography in studying the Great French Bourgeois Revolution of the late eighteenth century and especially its highest stage, the Jacobin dictatorship, is summarized in an interesting, though controversial, work by V. G. Revunenkov .79
The sharpness of the ideological struggle on the problems of modern and contemporary history led to the appearance of a series of works on the ways of development of bourgeois historical thought. They study the interpretation of a particular historical problem by scientists of various political and methodological orientations. Thus, the history of studying the revolution of 1848-1849 in France up to the last years was considered by L. A. Bendrikova 80 . Such a long period allows us to trace the origin, decline and transformation of the concepts that have developed around this problem. The quite obvious need for a critical analysis of the vast flow of bourgeois literature on the history of World War II led Soviet scientists to turn to its historiographical study. Attempts by West German and English bourgeois authors to distort the question of the origin of the Second World War, its decisive battles, and inter-Allied relations are refuted in the books of A. N. Mertsalov and G. N. Reutov. 81 This type of research also includes S. I. Alpatov's monograph on the American historiography of the German problem. The German historians ' interpretation of the main issues of the history of the Kaiser's Reich is considered in the work of K. D. Petryaev 82 .

Contemporary works on bourgeois historiography are characterized by a strictly differentiated approach to its various trends, trends and schools. The evidentiary value of historiographical works is greatly enhanced by the fact that their authors not only reveal contradictions in the logic of research among representatives of bourgeois science, but also operate in polemics with them with documentary sources, widely attract specific historical materials. The efficiency of historiographical research, which takes into account the latest works of bourgeois historians, is also increasing. Historiographical reviews summarizing the results of research by Soviet and foreign historians are published much more frequently. Along with Moscow and Leningrad, teams have been successfully working on this problem in a number of universities (Tomsk, Kazan, Voronezh, Odessa).

In the field of source studies of modern and contemporary history, unfortunately, there was very little special research in the past five years. A happy exception is the extremely complex and successful work in the field of research and systematization of sources on the history of Marxism-Leninism. Generalizing work of R. S. Mnukhina 83 on

78 "Kommunist", 1970, N 2, p. 120.

79 V. G. Revunenkov. Marxism and the problem of the Jacobin dictatorship. (Historiographical sketch), L. 1966.

80 L. A. Bendrikov. French historiography of the Revolution of 1848-1849 in France (1848-1968). Moscow, 1969.

81 A. N. Mertsalov. Zapadnogermanskie istoriki i memoiristy o vtoroi mirovoi voyny [West German Historians and Memoirists about the Second World War]. Moscow, 1967; G. N. Reutov. Truth and fiction about the second world war. M. 1970.

82 S. I. Alpatov. American Bourgeois Historiography of the German Problem, Moscow, 1966; K. D. Petryaev. Myths and reality in a "critical review" of the past. Essays on the bourgeois historiography of Germany. Kiev, 1969.

83 R. S. Mnukhina. Sources of the history of modern and contemporary art. M. 1970.

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The book is intended for the study of sources of modern and contemporary history, which attempts to classify the types of sources and systematize the experience gained in this field, and is useful not only as a guide for students. Based on the material collected in this book, it is easier to identify ways and specific tasks for further work in this area.

Summing up the general results of the study of modern and contemporary history over the past five years, we can state with satisfaction that this branch of historical science came to the XXIV Congress of the CPSU with significant success. There has never been such a wide range of subjects and aspects chosen as objects for analysis as today, there has never been such a variety of genres and types of historical literature. Enriching the arsenal of research techniques through a sociological, socio-psychological, and synchronic approach to the material provides a concrete and practical answer to the question of the relationship between history and other social sciences, which was so vigorously debated "at the XIII International Congress of Historical Sciences. In some cases, successful coordination with representatives of related sciences has been achieved. The theoretical level of research has increased, and at the same time, many historians have learned to put the most complex research and conclusions in an accessible form, which increases the direct impact of their work on a wide range of readers. The tasks of further development of historical science require a critical analysis of the results achieved and the earliest possible overcoming of existing shortcomings.

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