Moscow, Nauka Publ. 1984, 302 p.
In recent years, Soviet historians, ethnographers, cultural historians, and representatives of other related disciplines have been increasingly paying attention to comprehensive, comparative-historical research that makes it possible to overcome the limitations of the country-specific approach (which, of course, is necessary in itself, although insufficient).
The fruitfulness of comprehensive collective research is also demonstrated by the peer-reviewed monograph1, which analyzes the leading political trends in relations between the countries of Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and the Ottoman Empire during the second half of the 15th and 16th centuries. The idea of the book itself is also original, combining the efforts of specialists studying various countries to identify patterns and features of the development of political relations between the Ottoman Empire and the countries and peoples of the area under consideration, the relationship between the socio-political development of the Ottoman Empire and the peoples of the Balkans who gradually fell under its rule.
The authors analyzed a variety of source studies and historiographical material. At the same time, the features of the socio - economic and political development of the Ottoman empire are considered not only in special sections, but are taken into account everywhere, contributing to a more complete coverage of the historical development of different Balkan countries.
The goals and objectives of the monograph are described in the Introduction. Here it is emphasized that the period of the second half of the XV-XVI centuries was a turning point: "during the well-organized military and political expansion of the Porte in South - Eastern and Central Europe, in the process of complex interaction of all the feudal states of this region, significant changes took place in the historical destinies of the peoples of this part of the European continent" (p.3).
Aiming at a broad and comprehensive analysis of the problems under study, the authors explore the history of foreign policy not only of the Ottoman Empire and the feudal states of the Balkan Peninsula that were subjected to aggression, but also of neighboring and somehow related countries - the German Empire, the Czech Kingdom, Hungary, the Polish-Lithuanian State, Moscow Rus, and finally, the vassal of Istanbul - the Crimean Khan. The authors are actually guided by the position that foreign policy is a continuation of domestic policy. This is done in most detail in relation to the Ottoman Empire (the first two chapters). The reader gets a clear idea of the nature of the Ottoman state, the origin of the system of power, feudal and military organization. Written with the latest achievements of the Soviet and foreign countries in mind.-
1 Editorial Board: I. B. Grekov (Editor-in-chief), L. V. Zaborovsky (Secretary-in-chief), G. G. Litavrin, S. F. Oreshkova, L. E. Semenova (Deputy Editor-in-chief). Authors: I. B. Grekov, Yu. A. Limonov, G. G. Litavrin, E. P. Naumov, S. F. Oreshkova, A. I. Rogov, L. E. Semenova, S. O. Schmidt, V. P. Shusharin.
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These chapters are particularly important for understanding the processes discussed in the book. Here, the ways of the Ottoman Turks ' penetration into the Balkans are well covered, and the methods of the initial stage of their conquests are shown, in particular, the policy of "buffer zones" (p.13), the formation of a management structure for the conquered lands. Considerable attention is paid to the nature of the Ottoman timarian system of land ownership, the specifics of the development of feudalism. The analysis of socio-political and ethno-demographic processes focuses on the aspects that are important for showing the features of feudalism and the structure of power and governance, which were especially revealed in the process of Turkish expansion in the Balkans.
In our opinion, it is a good description of the complex situation in Central Europe, the dynamics of relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Danubian principalities, as well as between the Ottoman Empire, the Crimean Khanate, Russia and Poland. Of independent importance is chapter 13, which shows in detail the reflection of the Ottoman expansion and the struggle against it in the literature and journalism of the Slavic peoples (p. 237-251). To understand the socio-cultural and socio-psychological situation in the Balkans, it is of great importance to consider the works of Grigory Tsamblak, Joasaph Vidinsky and other authors of the late XIV century, the works of Konstantin the Philosopher and other scribes of the first half of the XV century, as well as literary monuments that originated in the Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Polish and Czech environment, in Dubrovnik In the 16th century, humanistic ideas became widespread, and in Russia, where at the end of the 15th and 16th centuries a series of works on the fall of Constantinople appeared, which were of no small importance in developing the theory of the "third Rome". It is interesting that the appeal to the situation in Turkey often served for Russian publicists of the XVI century. a way of allegorical criticism of the situation in Russia itself. Thus, the alleged reforms of Mehmed II outlined by the Russian public and political figure of that time Ivan Peresvetov actually reflected the program of reforms that were brewing in Russia (p. 243).
The chapter "The peoples of South-Eastern Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the XIV-XV centuries" makes a reasonable conclusion that " on the eve of the Ottoman offensive, the progressive development of medieval South Slavic society continued, forcibly interrupted by the invasion of the Ottoman Empire. The establishment of the rule of the feudal Ottoman elite in the Balkans meant the subordination and inferior position of the South Slavic and other Balkan peoples who professed Christianity " (p. 50). This conclusion seems all the more appropriate because, as the authors correctly noted, there is still an opinion in the bourgeois and partly modern historiography of some foreign Slavic countries that the Ottoman invasion had some positive consequences, including the establishment of a regime of "religious tolerance" and "legality", the development of cities,"prosperity" of the peasantry, etc. In contrast to such claims, which have no serious foundation, the monograph emphasizes that the foreign invasion was accompanied by huge material destruction and death of the local population, the collapse of the local Balkan feudal system and its replacement by the rule of Ottoman feudal lords. It should be noted that this had a negative impact on the ethno-social structure of the Balkan feudal peoples, making it difficult for them to transition to the nation in the future. Since the sixteenth century, this process has also been influenced by the policy of Islamization, which, in particular, led to the beginning of the formation of a special Muslim nation in Bosnia (otherwise, the Bosnian-Muslim community) (p.224). These observations, which help in many respects to better understand the complex development of the anti-Ottoman struggle in the Balkans, are of interest for the development of concrete historical questions of the theory of ethnos.
In this connection, we draw attention to another important issue that the authors of the monograph repeatedly address from different angles of view. It concerns the connection of the political and diplomatic struggle in Central Europe at the end of the 15th and 16th centuries with the trends of ethnopolitical development. An example is the struggle at the end of the 15th century. Casimir Jagiellon for the Hungarian crown. It was aimed at consolidating the Polish-Lithuanian state, establishing its real union with Hungary and the Czech Republic, and achieving access to the Black Sea with the subsequent colonization of these lands by Polish feudal lords (p. 93). This tenden-
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It was opposed by the desire of the Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus to create a vast multinational state under the auspices of the Hungarian Hunyadi dynasty. Analyzing the then existing rivalry between these and other countries of the range, the authors show that even at that time Austria and Hungary objectively became two possible epicenters of the formation of a multiethnic empire in the Danube basin (p. 98, 279). This observation largely explains not only the specifics of the inter - state struggle, but also the ebb and flow in relations with the Ottoman Empire, which were inherent (and later repeatedly made themselves felt) in the policy of the Polish feudal lords.
This was not only understood, but also taken into account by the Sultan's diplomacy, which developed and consistently implemented flexible tactics aimed at solving the main strategic task - to create favorable conditions for advancing to Europe. As can be seen from the observations and conclusions of the authors of the monograph, two factors played a primary role here. First, the skilful and deft coordination of the foreign policy and military actions of the Ottoman Empire and its vassal Crimea, which outwardly gave the impression of inconsistency and created a "duality effect" that confused the politicians of the feudal states of the area (p.277). Another factor of the Sultan's policy was inextricably linked to this - pitting their opponents against each other and alternately flirting with those states that were of interest to Istanbul at any given moment. In this connection, we can refer to the analysis of the policy of the Porte and the Crimean Khanate towards Russia (p. 159).
At the same time, some of the provisions formulated in the monograph, especially in the "Introduction" and "Conclusion", seem either insufficiently clear or insufficiently reasoned. It is hardly legitimate to contrast so sharply (p.7) the country-specific and complex approaches to the study of the history of the region. After all, country studies directly prepare a comprehensive analysis. The reviewed work confirms this, because it is, in fact, based on regional studies, but the authors are distinguished by the desire for a comprehensive analysis, for a broad generalization of the material.
Not all the important points of the book are sufficiently supported by facts. Thus, the authors claim that in the system of Ottoman finance and fiscal management "the influence of pre-Ottoman Balkan traditions was significant" (p. 16). But this thesis is not supported by any examples or references to any source. There are also some inaccuracies in the section devoted to Ottoman history. In particular, Constantinople did not surrender to the Turks, as it is said in the book (p.21), but was taken by storm. The concise presentation, defined by the scope of the book, which has covered a large period of time, has led to the fact that sometimes essential provisions remain unclear to the reader. Thus, he can only guess why "accelerated feudal development" was possible in Rumelia (p. 24), and what "achievements of the previous period" led to the rejection of the expansion of the Ottoman Empire at the expense of new Muslim territories (p.34).
The complex ethno-social and political processes that took place in the German Empire, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland, the Russian State and other countries of the area in the 15th century can hardly be described as "variants of the general natural process of the formation of feudal states" (p.274). Of course, this was not the process of their formation, which took place several centuries earlier, but its further development, on which the Ottoman aggression had the most harmful effect, deforming, and in some cases (in the Balkans) and temporarily suspending it.
From more specific remarks, we note the following. The conceptual framework is not always well used. Thus, taking into account that nations were not yet formed at that time, it is more appropriate to use the term "ethnic", and in particular to speak not about the "national core" (p.136), but, as is customary, about the "ethnic core". The term "region"is also used inconsistently. Since the monograph deals with three regions of Europe, their combined designation as a region is confusing. Given the experience gained in Soviet Slavic studies and Balkan studies, it is better to use the term "area"in this case.
The mentioned shortcomings are of a secondary nature. In general, the authors of the monograph managed to raise and solve topical issues that allow for a deeper understanding of not only the political itself, but also the political situation.
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to a large extent, the ethno-social development of this part of the European continent at the dawn of modern times. Since the trends identified in the course of the study were further developed in the following decades and had a great impact on the peoples and countries of not only South-Eastern, Central and Eastern Europe, but also on other zones, we would like to hope that the authors will continue their work and bring it at least to the turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. This monograph is a good example of fruitful cooperation between Slavists and Orientalists.
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