The article discusses the ways and means of distribution of forms and technologies for making tiles. Their production developed in Moscow at the end of the XV-XVI centuries, and in the second half of the XVII century it reached a mass level and covered a significant number of cities in all regions of the Russian state. Various forms of distribution are recorded: purchase of finished products by residents of other cities; transfer of technologies (transfer of carved matrices for printing images from Moscow, training in the techniques of roasting and cooking glazes, etc.); transfer of tile makers themselves from Moscow to the province. The conclusions are based on a comparison of extensive collections of tiles in Moscow with the products of new production centers and an analysis of local products.

Keywords: tile, tile decor, master, ornament, customer.

Introduction

Late medieval tiles from different places within the borders of all of Russia have a clear similarity. This is typical both for the early stages of development, and especially for the heyday of tile production in the second half of the XVII century. In connection with the discussion of what caused the similarity, well-known researchers of tile art N. V. Voronov and I. G. Sakharova noted:: "On this occasion, a number of bold assumptions were put forward - about the standard production of tiles, about the relocation of "tile masters" from city to city, about the inheritance of tile forms by potters-students of potters-masters and the use of these forms in subsidiary workshops located in other "localities", etc. it does not yet have sufficient justification, and the question can still be considered open" [1955, p. 78].

"Path" of tiles

The study of Russian tiles (both architectural and stove tiles) of the late Middle Ages revealed some uniformity of products on a very large territory of Moscow Russia (Baranova, 2007). There was an opinion that one of the first ceramic facade products - terracotta slabs, which from the end of the XV to the middle of the XVI century were decorated with all metropolitan and Moscow region buildings, "builders received from Moscow workshops that had a high level of pottery production" [Vygolov, 1975, p. 313]. But this "uniformity" was most clearly manifested in the second half of the XVII century with the advent of the kingdom of multicolored tiles, when they took a primary place in the exterior appearance and interiors and were considered as examples of"Moscow taste". The results of the work on identifying and studying the entire preserved range of Moscow tiles allow us to confidently conclude that metropolitan products are widely distributed throughout the entire territory of the Russian state.

Most often, this occurred in the form of delivery of finished products. Few facts of delivery have been documented (Voronov and Sakharova, 1955). The question of the origin of products due to the lack of information about this can be solved by comparing tiles from Moscow and from other cities, for example, Uglich, Ustyug, Yaroslavl, Sol-

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Vychegodsk, Solikamsk, Ryazan. The origin of some of the tiles seems obvious: they are distinguished by "branded" metropolitan features. Among them are variants of the tile panels "birds with fruits", which decorated the bell tower of the Church of Cosmas and Damian in Sadovniki in the 1680s (Fig. 1)*, and the refectory of the Church of the Assumption in Gonchari in 1702; such panels (sometimes with minor changes in the drawing) are available in the design of Iosifo-Volotsky and Pafnutievo- Borovsky monasteries, as well as the Church of Zosima and Savvati in the village of Faustovo near Moscow. A special place among such items is occupied by panels with high-relief figures of evangelists, which are decorated with some monuments in Moscow, as well as the gate church of St. John the Baptist in the Solotchinsky monastery near Ryazan. For the same Solotchinsky monastery in Moscow, tiles depicting cherubs were purchased (RGADA. F. 1202. Op. 1. Ed. hr. 243; fig. 2, 3).

Another way to distribute tiles was to transfer wooden forms (matrices) for the "valuable business" to local workshops, which was facilitated by the easy accessibility of transportation. Written sources indicate the use of monastic forms, for example, the document of 1683 on their transfer to Moscow.: "According to the decree of the Great Sovereigns, it was ordered to build stone chambers... and for that building, for the production of valuable samples of uniforms, take from the Resurrection Monastery what you need" (cit. by: [Leonid [Kavelin], 1876, p. 105]). It is established that the forms used to make the "peacock's eye" frieze in the Resurrection Cathedral of the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow were later used for the decoration of the Pokrovsky Cathedral in Izmailovo, the Church of St. Gregory of Neokesarea on Bolshaya Polyanka, and the gate church of the Andreevsky Monastery (for more details, see [Voronov and Sakharova, 1955, pp. 107-110]). An example of this method of distributing tiles is found in the history of creating the decoration of the Church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa in Okhotny Ryad: it also used forms from the New Jerusalem Monastery. This is confirmed by documentary data [Rosknye delo..., 1888, stb. 855-858; Leonid [Kavelin], 1876, p. 69-70], as well as the results of studying the preserved tiles, which show a striking similarity in drawing and working out the relief with the New Jerusalem products [Baranova, 2000].

The spread of tiles was due to trips of state-owned craftsmen from Moscow, for example, to organize tile production on any construction site, to train local craftsmen, and most often - to make a large batch of products. Often Moscow craftsmen brought with them tile forms. Kievans and Galicians, Suzdalians and Nizhny Novgorod residents, Kostroma residents and Yaroslavl residents worked in the capital [Frolov, 1991, p. 9], who mastered the techniques of Moscow masters-"tseninniki". All that

1. Tile panel "bird with fruit" from the decoration of the bell tower of the Church of Kozma and Damian in Sadovniki in Moscow. Early 1680s. Collection of the Moscow State United Museum-Reserve.

2. Tiles from the decoration of the Church of Ermolai on Sadovaya Street in Moscow. 1682 Collection of the Moscow State United Museum-Reserve.

* An example of an unexpected use of panels (probably secondary) is the lining of the furnace of the Archbishop's chambers in the Spassky Monastery in Ryazan.

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3. Tile decoration of the Church of the Holy Spirit in the Solotchinsky monastery. 1695

it contributed not only to the acquaintance of local craftsmen with the Moscow technological "cuisine", but also to the wide spread of the capital's ornaments. A detailed comparison of seemingly identical tile patterns found in different locations reveals subtle differences.

A frequent rapport outside of Moscow with a vase on tiles, for example, on the Church of the Ascension of the Vyazhishchsky Monastery near Novgorod [Vygolov, 1968, p. 254], the Intercession Church in Tutaev [Nemtsova, 1990, p. 344], the bell tower of the Spasskaya Church in Balakhna [Ibid.], the Transfiguration Church in Ustyug [Shilnikovskaya, 1973, p. 222], the Blacksmith Tower of the Iosifo-Volotsky Monastery (see: [Voronov, Sakharova, 1955, p. 102]), as well as on archaeological finds from different regions, for example, from Verkhoturye (see: [Sokolova, 1998]) differ in details. Apparently, when transferring the drawing to another form, additional curls, flowers, leaves, etc.were introduced into the original version. This is a broad use of the favorite motifs and variants of the drawing, i.e., one of the most common forms of its "migration" - the use of motifs developed by Moscow masters. In this regard, it is necessary to note the decoration of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin on Molotkov in Veliky Novgorod (late XVII-early XVIII c.). The drum of the temple is decorated with a belt of rather large wall tiles, which are a smaller version of the Moscow panel "bird with fruits". They were made, most likely, by local craftsmen who took into account the necessary dimensions, but according to Moscow samples. Thus, the monuments of a number of cities are examples of both direct copying and using elements of the drawing of Moscow tiles.

The types of tiles typical of Moscow monuments are especially widely and ostentatiously represented in Yaroslavl. This observation, made in the 19th century, was later accepted by many experts (for more details, see [Baranova, 2001, 2007, 2010]). Unfortunately, no documentary data on the purchase of Moscow tiles or trips to Yaroslavl of the capital's craftsmen have been found, and the researchers ' points of view on the origin of the tiles do not coincide. "According to V. I. Lestvitsyn, a local archaeologist and a deep connoisseur of Yaroslavl antiquity, the tiles in Yaroslavl are not local, but imported... It seems that the only source for Yaroslavl to receive tiles could only be Moscow... " (cit. according to [Sultanov, 1885, pp. 62-63]). N. G. Pervukhin believed that "undoubtedly, these tiles came from one factory, of course, a local one, since Yaroslavl built many brick factories and pottery workshops in the golden age of its architecture, which supplied excellent material" [1916, p. 63]. 13].

In favor of the version that the tiles were made in Moscow, the Yaroslavl tiles themselves testify. Analogs of the capital's tiles are found on almost all monuments of the city. E. V. Kondratyeva notes: "The tiles on the Church of St. John the Baptist in Tolchkovo show an obvious resemblance to Moe-

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kovskimizdeliyami " [1998, p. 412]. Tiles on other Yaroslavl monuments are also numerous examples of similarity. First of all, these are large-format tiles with rosettes; they were first used in the design of the New Jerusalem Monastery, then appeared in Moscow and later in Yaroslavl. The famous Moscow series is repeated by Yaroslavl tiles depicting birds. For the first time such tiles appeared in Moscow on the Bridge Tower in Izmailovo, and then - in the decoration of the bell tower of the Church of St. Nicholas on the Arbat. In general, tiles with birds literally "scattered" across Russia; they are found in Balakhna, Nizhny Novgorod, Rostov and Borisoglebsky decors. Local interpretations of such tiles are known from the design of churches in Veliky Ustyug, Pskov, Kovrov, Suzdal, Uglich, Kostroma, Solikamsk, and Verkhoturye.

The wide distribution of tiles allows you to imagine the decoration of the Vyazhishch monastery*. Tile decoration distinguished the churches of St. John the Evangelist and Ascension with a refectory chamber (1694-1698) and bell towers (1708) from all the monuments known in the Novgorod lands. Well-known Moscow tile compositions come to the fore, for example, a rapport with a vase of flowers that decorated the church of Adrian and Natalia in Meshchanskaya Sloboda and the bell tower of the Trinity Church in Zubov. The theme of the state coat of arms has received an unusually magnificent expression on the tiles in the Vyazhishchsky Monastery (for more details, see: [Voronov, 1917; Vygolov, 1968]). In the decoration of the cathedral and the bell tower of the monastery, there are two types of tiled heraldic compositions that are well known in Moscow. The first view is of four-part panels in the wide frieze of the upper tier and the bell tower's bell parapet, built in 1708, similar to the coat of arms panels in the decor of the Sukharev Tower in Moscow. The second type is a rapport composition, the same as on the Main Pharmacy in Moscow, reproduced on the Refectory of the Church of St. John the Theologian, which was built in the Vyazhishchsky Monastery in 1697-1698 and completed in 1702. Such a saturation of images of the state coat of arms of the main monastic buildings could not be accidental. According to V. P. Vygolov, the use of tiles with the coat of arms in the buildings of the monastery is associated with the participation of Peter I in the Northern War and the activities of Metropolitan Job (1697-1716), who enjoyed special respect and favor of the emperor and his closest entourage [1968, p.259].

If the panels with eagles are presented in the bell tower in full, then the tile rapports with the heraldic eagle and the vase are presented separately**. Fragments of a two-row rapport with an eagle are part of a single-row frieze: they create an ornament of alternating heads with wings and paws. Some fragments of rapport have found use as inserts. The composition with a vase is also freely used. This indicates that the tiles were imported, not intended for a specific structure, they were made without taking into account the architectural features of the buildings under construction and later placed on the site quite freely.

So, it can be argued that with the advent of tile production in Moscow, its products have become widespread. In the absence of documentary evidence about the origin of products, typological comparison is one of the most important ways to identify the genesis of technologies, ornaments and the use of local tile groups in architecture. In this case, the search for Moscow analogues is a necessary technique. Based on the results of a comparison of local and Moscow samples, a hypothesis is based on the Moscow origin of the tiles of the Vyazhishch Monastery, monuments of Uglich, Yaroslavl, Solvychegodsk and many other cities. At the same time, you can trace local and regional variants of tile design and their introduction into the decor structure that differs from Moscow, sometimes in a small amount. The study of these regional versions makes us think about the circumstances and mechanisms of their appearance. There are very few written sources that mention local tile production. Documentary evidence of many of the main production centers of the 17th century (Yaroslavl, Balakhna, Suzdal, Vladimir) is not yet known. However, it is clear that in such cities as Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Suzdal, Balakhna, Kaluga, Veliky Ustyug, Solikamsk, etc., where large-scale construction was carried out and there were their own brick and pottery industries, tile centers could arise.

There is no doubt about the widespread production of red tiles, because even a small workshop could master their production: this did not require large costs for glaze and for the payment of the master, who had to know the recipe of glaze and packaging-

* The tiled decor of the monastery was analyzed in detail by V. P. Vygolov [1968].

** The use of separate tiles is quite common. For example, in the Iosifo-Volotsky monastery "some rapports are collected from different tiles, both in drawing and coloring, and some represent only the vertical half of the composition" [Voronov and Sakharova, 1955, p. 106], "individual green tiles from this composition adorn the frieze of the bell tower of the Alexander Monastery in Suzdal... In the Kovrov Cathedral of the Nativity of Christ, all parts of the panels are used separately" [Nemtsova, 1990, p. 344].

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to be treated with its roasting. In the Moscow region, the production of red tiles was established, for example, in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery [Rosenfeldt, 1968; Engovatova and Zelentsova, 2005; Shcherbakov, 2005]. R. T. Rosenfeldt distinguished four groups of tiles from the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, which he dated to the 1660s and distinguished from the Moscow ones by the originality of the plots [1968]. Local products include red tiles discovered during archaeological excavations in Suzdal, Vladimir (Nemtsova, 1990, 1991a), and Ryazan [Yakhontov, 1927]. Red tiles are found everywhere: Nanovgorodchine [Yakovleva and Zhegurova, 2006], in Kazan [Sitdikov, 2006], Siberia [Chernaya, 2002].

There is information about the existence in the XVII century of its own production of tiles in Pereslavl-Zalessky. In the monastery's parish and expense books for 1687-1688, there are five references to the purchase of tiles for the construction and repair of stoves in residential premises, indicating the name of the potter:"...given for izrastsy and from kladen (b)I pereslavets Andrey Kornilov... " (cit. by: [Beletsky, 2008, p. 180]).

Archaeological finds also indicate the production of tiles in certain cities. For example, in Balakhna, the remains of furnaces for firing tiles were found (Nemtsova, 1991b).

Evidence of the activity of a tile center in a particular city is the presence of monuments decorated with a large number of tiles, as well as finds united by a complex of common specific characteristics [Nemtsova, 1991b, pp. 6-7]. This criterion used in the study of tile production is quite consistent with the scale of tile decoration in a number of cities.

Most likely, in the XVII, and often in the XVIII century. tile making was part of the brick and pottery production. In local workshops, two production facilities that were not geographically separated coexisted: for making dishes or bricks and tiles. Most often, tile making was combined with pottery production.

There is no doubt that the products of local production were muralized tiles of the mid - second half of the XVII century, made in the furnaces of the building of the monastery cells of the Alexandrovskaya Sloboda*. They are distinguished by the unique pot-shaped high rump and low-relief carpet ornament.

A study of the tiles of the Solovetsky Monastery has shown that wall tiles have no direct analogues, while "the tiles of the auxiliary group in some cases exactly coincide with the tiles of other museum collections and with the tiles of stoves in Moscow and Yaroslavl" (Petrovskaya, 2006, p.258). Probably, the monastery bought tiles of an additional group on the mainland, while wall tiles, heavier and more fragile, which made it difficult to transport them, were made locally by local or invited craftsmen.

Local production is evidenced by some features of the design (rump) and the nature of images of tiles in Veliky Ustyug , one of the largest trading cities in the North. The architectural appearance of the city began to take shape in the second half of the 17th century, during the period of active use of multicolored tiles in the decoration of buildings. A.V. Filippov noted that the originality and uniqueness of the tile rump of Veliky Ustyug "helped to establish the existence of one of the large independent centers of tile production in the North, which can be united by the concept of North Ustyug- Dvinskaya school" [1938, Table 16]. However, the impetus for the use of tiles in the decoration of architectural monuments of Veliky Ustyug of the XVII century. the experience of Moscow was revealed. For the first time in Veliky Ustyug, tiles were used in the construction of the Ascension Church, they were made in Moscow**. But already in the second half of the century, Ustyug tiles, copying Moscow samples, are enriched with new elements that often transform the plot (for more information, see: [Lisenkova, 2010]). Features of the interpretation of well-known ornaments in the decoration of monuments of Ustyug indicate the production of tiles directly on the spot.

The Ural and Siberian "path" of tiles is marked by monuments with tiled decor - these are the Trinity Cathedral and the Epiphany Church in Solikamsk, the Trinity Cathedral in Verkhoturye, etc. It is known that the Church of the Annunciation in Tyumen (1700-1708), which was lost to date, had the richest tile decoration: "the window and door frames were decorated with tiles made of green and purple ceramic tiles. Majolica inserts with relief images of vines completed the walls of the temple under the corner columns. The upper part of the increased volume of the temple - the chetverika - was also decorated with majolica inserts, and on the blind part of the northern facade of the refectory there was a large and colorful majolica panel - "herbs". A significant role in the architecture of the church was played by the sub-cornice belt made of majolica slabs, on which an ornate Slavic script is written about the time of the construction of the church and the persons involved in the construction" [Proskuryakova, 1986, pp. 114-115].

* Stored in the collections of the State Historical, Architectural and Art Museum-Reserve "Alexandrovskaya Sloboda", the State Historical Museum, and the Moscow State United Museum-Reserve.

** For the Moscow origin of the Ascension Church tiles, see Maslikh, 1983, p. 13; Nemtsova, 1991a, p. 91.

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The almost metropolitan splendor of the tiled decoration of the buildings on the periphery is not surprising. It is known that Moscow craftsmen participated in the production of tiles, who were part of the "detachments of qualified craftsmen" sent from Moscow [Ibid.]. In the 1680s, the Moscow master Gerasim Sharypin worked in Tobolsk, who made "murals and furnaces" [Chernaya, 2002, p. 65]. The name of Timofey Markovich Gusev from the Moscow Potter's Settlement, who was sent to Verkhoturye in 1699 for the construction of stone buildings, is also associated with the tiled decoration of the city's Trinity Cathedral (Kopylova, 1979, pp. 132-133). Here, in 1700, "tile looms and clay were brought, from which furnace samples and tiles are made in Moscow" [Kaptikov, 1990, p. 166]. Traces of a ceramic workshop for the production of irrigation construction ceramics were discovered on the territory of the Verkhotursky Kremlin in the 1980s and 1990s [Sokolova, 1998, p. 165].

The duties of visiting craftsmen also included training "simple tile and muravleny and furnace exemplary work in a year for 5 or 6 people-brick makers, peshniki, gorsheshnikov, masons" [Chernaya, 2002, p. 65], after which local craftsmen soon took over the furnaces. Hence the variety of distinctive features of Ural and Siberian tiles. In some cases, these are outspoken remarks that suggest Moscow or other (for example, Volga) production, in others-tiles with regional features that indicate local production, but they often reflect the impulse that came "from Russia".

Conclusion

Late medieval tiles are an irreplaceable source of information that expands our understanding of metropolitan and provincial production, how regional schools were created with original features inherent only in local production. Most of the schools were formed directly under the influence of Moscow, and only a few were formed independently. All regional versions bear the imprint of the Moscow tradition, which continued to exist in the province until the middle of the XVIII century. when in the Center of the tile facade has long disappeared.

List of literature

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Baranova S. I. K voprosu o moskovskikh analogiyakh v izraztsovom dekoreh Yaroslavl'skikh tserkov XVII v. [On the question of Moscow analogies in the tiled decor of Yaroslavl churches of the 17th century]. Yaroslavl: Avers Press, 2001, Issue V., pp. 99-109.

Baranova S. I. Migratsiya moskovskikh izraztsov [Migration of Moscow tiles]. Kolomenskoe: Materialy i issledovaniya [Kolomenskoe: Materials and Research]. museum-Reserve, 2007, issue 9, pp. 64-78.

Baranova S. I. Moskovskie izraztsy: formy migratsii [Moscow tiles: forms of migration]. Yaroslavl: Avers Press, 2010, pp. 119-128.

Beletsky D. V. Proizvodstvo pechnoy keramiki v kontse XVII veka v Pereslavl ' -Zalessky [Production of furnace ceramics at the end of the 17th century in Pereslavl-Zalessky]. and the artist. Alexandrovskaya Sloboda Museum-Reserve, 2008, issue 4, pp. 179-183.

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Voronov N. V., Sakharova I. G. O datirovke i rasprostranenie nekotorykh vidov moskovskikh izraztsov [On the dating and distribution of some types of Moscow tiles]. Materialy i issledovaniya po arkheologii Moskvy, Moscow: IA AN SSSR, 1955, vol. 3, pp. 77-115.

Vygolov V. I. Monumental and decorative ceramics of Novgorod in the late 17th century (Tiles of the Vyazhitsky monastery) / / Drevnerusskoe iskusstvo: Khudozhestvennaya kul'tura Novgoroda, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1968, pp. 237-267.

Vygolov V. I. Russkaya arkhitekturnaya keramika kontsa XV - nachala XVI V. [Russian architectural ceramics of the late XV-early XVI centuries]: Zarubezhnye svyazi [Foreign Relations], Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1975, pp. 282-317.

Kaptikov A. Yu. Stone architecture of the Russian North, Vyatka, Urals of the XVIII century. Problems of regional schools. Sverdlovsk: Ural State University, 1990, 184 p.

Kondratieva E. V. Izraztsy tserkvi Ioann Predtechi v Tolchkov [Tiles of the Church of St. John the Baptist in Tolchkov]. New Discoveries: Yearbook, 1997, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1998, pp. 399115.

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Pervukhin N. G. Church of the Epiphany in Yaroslavl. Yaroslavl: Yaroslav Publishing House, artist. ob-va, 1916. -26, [1] p. +[13] L. il.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 14.11.13.

Abstract

Based on the comparison of large collections of 15th-18th century Russian decorative tiles from Moscow and other Russian manufacturing centers, their typology is proposed, and the technology of their manufacture is reconstructed. The production of decorative tiles began in the late 15th century, and reached its peak in the second half of the 17th century, when it spread to other towns throughout all provinces of Russia. Tiles were distributed in various ways being imported to other cities and their technologies being transferred. Carved templates used for printing were exported from Moscow, skills of firing, preparing glaze, etc. were taught, and artisans themselves traveled from Moscow to various other provinces.

Keywords: tiles, tile pattern, artisan, ornament, customer.

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